Production and Operations Management
Norman Gaither Greg Frazier
Slides Prepared by John Loucks
1999 South-Western College Publishing 1
Chapter
Chapter 18
18
Quality Control
2
Overview
Overview
Introduction
Statistical Concepts in Quality Control
Control Charts
Acceptance Plans
Computers in Quality Control
Quality Control in Services
Wrap-Up: What World-Class Producers Do
3
Introduction
Introduction
Quality control (QC) includes the activities from the
suppliers, through production, and to the customers.
Incoming materials are examined to make sure they
meet the appropriate specifications.
The quality of partially completed products are
analyzed to determine if production processes are
functioning properly.
Finished goods and services are studied to determine
if they meet customer expectations.
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QC
QC Throughout
Throughout Production
Production Systems
Systems
Inputs Conversion Outputs
Raw Materials,
Production Products and
Parts, and
Processes Services
Supplies
Control Charts Control Charts
and Control Charts and
Acceptance Tests Acceptance Tests
Quality of Quality of Quality of
Inputs Partially Completed Outputs
Products
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Sampling
Sampling
The flow of products is broken into discrete batches
called lots.
Random samples are removed from these lots and
measured against certain standards.
A random sample is one in which each unit in the lot
has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
If a sample is random, it is likely to be representative
of the lot.
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Sampling
Sampling
Either attributes or variables can be measured and
compared to standards.
Attributes are characteristics classified in one of two
categories, defective (not meeting specifications) or
nondefective (meeting specifications).
Variables are characteristics that can be measured on
a continuous scale.
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Size
Size and
and Frequency
Frequency of
of Samples
Samples
As the percentage of lots in samples is increased:
the sampling and sampling costs increase, and
the quality of products going to customers
increases.
Typically, very large samples are too costly.
Extremely small samples might suffer from statistical
imprecision.
Larger samples are ordinarily used when sampling for
attributes than for variables.
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When
When toto Inspect
Inspect
During
During the
the Production
Production Process
Process
Inspect before costly operations.
Inspect before operations likely to produce faulty
items.
Inspect before operations that cover up defects.
Inspect before assembly operations that cannot be
undone.
On automatic machines, inspect first and last pieces
of production runs, but few in-between pieces.
Inspect finished products.
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Central
Central Limit
Limit Theorem
Theorem
The central limit theorem is: Sampling distributions
can be assumed to be normally distributed even
though the population (lot) distributions are not
normal.
The theorem allows use of the normal distribution to
easily set limits for control charts and acceptance
plans for both attributes and variables.
1
0
Sampling
Sampling Distributions
Distributions
The sampling distribution can be assumed to be
normally distributed unless sample size (n) is
extremely small.
The mean of the sampling distribution ( x= ) is equal to
the population mean ().
The standard error of the sampling distribution (-x ) is
smaller than the population standard deviation (x )
by a factor of 1/ n
1
1
Control
Control Charts
Charts
Primary purpose of control charts is to indicate at a
glance when production processes might have
changed sufficiently to affect product quality.
Indication that product quality has deteriorated, or is
likely to, leads to corrective action.
Indication that product quality is better than expected,
makes it important to find out why so that it can be
maintained.
The use of control charts is often referred to as
statistical process control (SPC).
1
2
Constructing
Constructing Control
Control Charts
Charts
The vertical axis provides the scale for the sample
information that is plotted on the chart.
The horizontal axis is the time scale.
The horizontal center line is ideally determined from
observing the capability of the process.
Two additional horizontal lines, the lower and upper
control limits, typically are 3 standard deviations
below and above, respectively, the center line.
1
3
Constructing
Constructing Control
Control Charts
Charts
If the sample information falls within the lower and
upper control limits, the quality of the population is
considered to be in control.
Otherwise quality is judged to be out of control and
corrective action should be considered.
Two versions of control charts will be examined
Control charts for attributes
Control charts for variables
1
4
Control
Control Charts
Charts for
for Attributes
Attributes
Inspection of the units in the sample is performed on
an attribute (defective/non-defective) basis.
Information gained by inspecting a sample of size n is
the percent defective in a sample, p, or the number of
units found to be defective in that sample divided by
n.
1
5
Control
Control Charts
Charts for
for Attributes
Attributes
Although the distribution of sample information
follows a binomial distribution, that distribution can
be approximated by a normal distribution with a
mean of p-
standard deviation of p(100 p)/n
The 3 lower control limits are
p / - 3 p(100 p)/n
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Control
Control Charts
Charts for
for Variables
Variables
Inspection of the units in the sample is performed on
a variable basis.
The information provided from inspecting a sample
of size n is:
the sample mean, x, or the sum of measurement of
each unit in the sample divided by n
the range, R, of measurements within the sample,
or the highest measurement in the sample minus
the lowest measurement in the sample
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Control
Control Charts
Charts for
for Variables
Variables
In this case two separate control charts are used to
monitor two different aspects of the process’s output:
Central tendency
Variability
The central tendency of the output is monitored using
the x-chart.
The variability of the output is monitored using the
R-chart.
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x-Chart
x-Chart
=
The central line is x, the sum of a number of sample
means collected while the process was considered to
be “in control” divided by the number of samples.
=
The 3 lower control limit is x - AR
The 3 upper control limit is =x + AR
Factor A is based on sample size.
1
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R-Chart
R-Chart
The central line is R, the sum of a number of sample
ranges collected while the process was considered to
be “in control” divided by the number of samples.
The 3 lower control limit is D1R.
The 3 upper control limit is D2R.
Factors D1and D2 are based on sample size.
2
0
Acceptance
Acceptance Plans
Plans
An acceptance plan is the overall scheme for either
accepting or rejecting a lot based on information
gained from samples.
The acceptance plan identifies the:
size of samples, n
type of samples
decision criterion, c, used to either accept or reject
the lot
Samples may be either single, double, or sequential.
2
1
Single-Sampling
Single-Sampling Plan
Plan
Acceptance or rejection decision is made after
drawing only one sample from the lot.
If the number of defectives, c’, does not exceed the
acceptance criteria, c, the lot is accepted.
2
2
Double-Sampling
Double-Sampling Plan
Plan
One small sample is drawn initially.
If the number of defectives is less than or equal to
some lower limit, the lot is accepted.
If the number of defectives is greater than some upper
limit, the lot is rejected.
If the number of defectives is neither, a second larger
sample is drawn.
Lot is either accepted or rejected on the basis of the
information from both of the samples.
2
3
Sequential-Sampling
Sequential-Sampling Plan
Plan
Units are randomly selected from the lot and tested
one by one.
After each one has been tested, a reject, accept, or
continue-sampling decision is made.
This process continues until the lot is accepted or
rejected.
2
4
Definitions
Definitions
Acceptance (Sampling) plan - The sample size (n)
and maximum number of defectives (c) that can be
found in a sample to accept a lot
Acceptable quality level (AQL) - If a lot has no more
than AQL percent defectives, it is considered a good
lot
Lot tolerance percent defective (LTPD) - If a lot has
greater than LTPD, it is considered a bad lot
2
5
Definitions
Definitions
Type I error - Based on sample information, a good
(quality) population is rejected
Type II error - Based on sample information, a bad
(quality) population is accepted
(producer’s risk) - For a particular sampling plan,
the probability that a Type I error will be committed
(consumer’s risk) - For a particular sampling plan,
the probability that a Type II error will be committed
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6
Considerations
Considerations in
in
Selecting
Selecting aa Sampling
Sampling Plan
Plan
Operating characteristics (OC) curve
Average outgoing quality (AOQ) curve
2
7
Operating
Operating Characteristic
Characteristic (OC)
(OC) Curve
Curve
An OC curve shows how well a particular sampling
plan (n,c) discriminates between good and bad lots.
The vertical axis is the probability of accepting a lot
for a plan.
The horizontal axis is the actual percent defective in
an incoming lot.
. . . more
2
8
OC
OC Curve
Curve (continued)
(continued)
For a given sampling plan, points for the OC curve
can be developed using the Poisson probability
distribution
. . . more
2
9
OC
OC Curve
Curve (continued)
(continued)
Management may want to:
specify the performance of the sampling procedure
by identifying two points on the graph:
AQL and
LTPD and
then find the combination of n and c that provides a
curve that passes through both points
3
0
Average
Average Outgoing
Outgoing Quality
Quality (AOQ)
(AOQ) Curve
Curve
Shows information depicted on the OC curve in a
different form.
Horizontal axis is the same as the horizontal axis for
the OC curve (percent defective in a lot).
Vertical axis is the average quality that will leave the
quality control procedure for a particular sampling
plan.
Average quality is calculated based on the
assumption that lots that are rejected are 100%
inspected before entering the production system.
3
1
AOQ
AOQ Curve
Curve
Under this assumption,
AOQ = [P(A)]/1
where: = percent defective in an incoming lot
P(A) = probability of accepting a lot is
obtained from the plan’s OC curve
As the percent defective in a lot increases, AOQ will
increase to a point and then decrease.
3
2
AOQ
AOQ Curve
Curve
The AOQ value where the maximum is attained is
referred to as the average outgoing quality level
(AOQL).
AOQL is the worst average quality that will exit the
quality control procedure using the sampling plan n
and c.
3
3
Computers
Computers in
in Quality
Quality Control
Control
Records about quality testing and results limit a
firm’s exposure in the event of a product liability suit.
Recall programs require that manufacturers
know the lot number of the parts that are
responsible for the potential defects
be able to tie the lot numbers of the suspected parts
to the final product model numbers
be able to track the model numbers of final
products to customers
3
4
Computers
Computers in
in Quality
Quality Control
Control
With automation, inspection and testing can be so
inexpensive and quick that companies may be able to
increase sample sizes and the frequency of samples,
thus attaining more precision in both control charts
and acceptance plans
3
5
Quality
Quality Control
Control in
in Services
Services
In all services there is a continuing need to monitor
quality
Control charts are used extensively in services to
monitor and control their quality levels
3
6
Wrap-Up:
Wrap-Up: World-Class
World-Class Practice
Practice
Quality cannot be inspected into products. Processes
must be operated to achieve quality conformance;
quality control is used to achieve this.
Statistical control charts are used extensively to
provide feedback about quality performance
. . . more
3
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Wrap-Up:
Wrap-Up: World-Class
World-Class Practice
Practice
Where 100 percent inspection and testing are
impractical, uneconomical, or impossible, acceptance
plans may be used to determine if lots of products are
likely to meet customer expectations.
The trend is toward 100 percent inspection and
testing; automated inspection and testing has made
such an approach effective and economical.
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End
End of
of Chapter
Chapter 18
18
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