What is Substation ?
Substation is an Electrical installation where power is
controlled for transmission & distribution purpose.
Substations can be categorized as:
Power evacuation substation
Substation part of Transmission system
Substation part of Distribution system
The Electric Utility
Power Evacuation Substation
Transmission Substation
Switching Substation
Distribution Substation
Power Evacuation Substation
Located adjacent to the Power Plant
Preferred voltage level
– 420 kV
– 245 kV
– 123,145 kV
– 72.5, 66 kV
Evacuation voltage level depends on
– Quantum of power to be evacuated (size of power plant)
– Distance of Transmission
– Gird network voltage of surrounding transmission system
Normally built by
– Utilities (e.g. NTPC, NHPC, Captive Power Plant by industries)
– Independent Power Producer (IPP)
Transmission Substation
Location is decided based on Transmission Grid Network
Preferred voltage level
– 420kV
– 245kV
– 145kV
Transmission voltage depends on
– Quantum of power to be received / transmitted
– Length of transmission line
Normally built by
– Utilities (e.g. Power Grid, State Electricity Boards)
Distribution Substation
Location is near the load
Preferred voltage level
– 245kV
– 145kV
– 72.5/36 kV
Station voltage level depends on
– Demand of power
– Utility norms of distribution
Normally built by
– Utilities (e.g. State Electricity Broads)
– Industries
What does a substation contains..
Substation
Main Auxiliary Auxiliary
Equipment Equipment System
Main Equipment
Circuit Breaker
Instrument Transformer (CT/CVT)
Surge Arrester
Isolator
Transformer & Reactor
Bus Support Insulator
What does a substation contains..
Substation
Main Auxiliary Auxiliary
Equipment Equipment System
Auxiliary Equipment
AC Distribution board
Battery & Battery Charger
DC Distribution board
Lighting Transformer
Main Lighting Distribution board
Emergency Lighting Distribution board
UPS
What does a substation contains..
Substation
Main Auxiliary Auxiliary
Equipment Equipment System
Auxiliary System
Illumination system
– Indoor (Control Room Building, DG, FFPH Building.)
– Outdoor switchyard
Fire fighting and fire detection system
Air conditioning and ventilation system
A typical substation content wise cost structure.
A B C D E F G H
6% 13% 4%
16%
27%
5%
7%
22%
A > Transformer / Reactor----------------------------------------- 27 %
B > EHV Circuit Breaker, CT, CVT, LA, Isolator, BPI------- 22 %
C > Control, Protection & PLCC---------------------------------- 7%
D > Medium Voltage Switchgear--------------------------------- 5%
E > Cables, AC/DC Aux., Lighting, Busbar etc.--------------- 16 %
F > Structures--------------------------------------------------------- 6%
G > Civil----------------------------------------------------------------- 13 %
H > Erection----------------------------------------------------------- 4%
Types of Fault
a
a b
Ø/E
OPEN c
b
CIRCUIT
c e
+ Ø/E
e a
b
Ø/Ø/E
c
FAULT
BETWEEN e
ADJACENT
PARALLEL a
LINES
Ø/Ø b
c
a a
3Ø b b
c 3Ø/E c
e
Protection - Why Is It Needed?
FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS RISK :
Severe damage to the faulted equipment :
Excessive current may flow;
Causes burning of conductors or equipment windings;
Arcing - energy dissipation;
Risk of explosions for oil - filled switchgear, or when in hazardous environments.
Damage to adjacent plant :
As the fault evolves, if not cleared quickly;
Danger to staff or the public :
Risk of shock from direct contact with the faulted equipment;
Danger of potential (voltage) rises in exposed metalwork – accessible to touch;
Fumes released by burning insulation;
Burns etc.
Protection System Analogy
Brain - Relay
Eyes,Ears,Nose & Skin
CTs, CVTs, VTs
Hands & Legs
Circuit Breakers
Protection System Analogy
Fault in the Power System
Sensed by Instrument
Transformers &
communicated to Relay
Relay Issues Trip
Command To Breaker
Breaker Trips
& Clears Fault
Desirable Qualities of Protective Relay
• Reliability It should not fail to operate in the event of fault.
• Selectivity It should identify and isolate the faulty portion of the
system.
• Speed Fault should be cleared as quickly as possible
Total Fault Clearing time = Relay operation time + CB operation time.
• Discrimination It should discriminate between different types of faults.
• Security It should not operate when it is not suppose to operate.
• Sensitivity The smallest value of actuating quantity at which the
protection starts operating in relation with the minimum value of fault
current in the protected zone
Protective Equipment
• CT
• CVT (or PT)
• Relays
• CB (or Fuse)
• Communication Equipment
• CT Current Transformers are used to transform primary currents to safer and
more practical lower values for use in metering and relaying.
Is
P1 P2
Ip
S1 S2
Inst. Current directions :-
P1 P2
S1 S2 Externally
CTs - Live Tank AOK CTs - Dead Tank
Important Specifications
Three types of cores are provided in a CT
> Metering Core
• VA burden - Burden consumed by the Meters
• Accuracy - 1.0, 0.5 or 0.2 (Tariff Metering)
> Protection Core
• VA burden, Accuracy class,
• Accuracy Limit Factor (e.g. 5P20, 10 P 20) - It is the maximum value of
current upto which the accuracy class is guaranteed.
> PS Class
• Knee point Voltage, Magnetizing current, Resistance of secondary
Measuring C.T.s
Measuring C.T.s B
Require good accuracy up to
approx 120% rated current.
Protection
Require low saturation level to
protect instruments, thus use C.T.
nickel iron alloy core with low
exciting current and knee point
at low flux density.
Protection C.T.s
Accuracy not as important as
above.
Require accuracy up to many Measuring
times rated current, thus use C.T.
grain orientated silicon steel with
high saturation flux density.
H
Voltage Transformers
Voltage Transformers are used to transform
primary voltages to safer and more practical lower
values for use in metering and relaying
Two main basic types are available:
Electromechanical VT`s
Similar to a power transformer
May not be economical above 132kV
Capacitor VT`s (CVT)
Used at high voltages
Main difference is that CVT has a capacitor divider on the
front end.
CVTs - General
Primary Voltage
V1
C1
Secondary
voltage V2 Take a tap at a higher
voltage
C2
Connect a step down PT
Step Down
PT
Protective Relaying
Functions of Protective Equipment
R Y B
CT RELAYS
BREAKER C1 C2 C3
C
AUXILIARY
B
SWITCH
TRIP COIL
+
- BATTERY
SUPPLY
Fault Interruption and Isolating
Action
Fault Interruption and Isolating
Fault Interruption and Isolating
Current Flow
4000 Amps
Bushing
Relay
25A
Trip
Fault occurs, CT secondary current increases, relay sends a trip
signal to the breaker trip coil.
Fault Interruption and Isolating
Current Flow
Relay
Trip
Breaker Interrupting Fault Current
Fault Interruption and Isolating
Relay
Breaker Contacts in Open Position
Types of Protection
Voltage
Uses voltage to infer fault or abnormal condition
May also be used for undervoltage load shedding
Frequency
Uses frequency of voltage to detect power balance condition
Used for load shedding & machinery under/overspeed protection
Power
Uses voltage and current to determine power flow magnitude and direction
Zones of Protection
Power System Protection is typically defined by areas called “Zones of
Protection”.
The purpose of a zone is to establish which part(s) of the system are
included in a particular protective scheme.
Each protective zone will ensure that the protection is complete and
appropriate and will not affect other parts of the system that are
functioning properly.
A correctly designed protective scheme will have “overlapping” zones.
By having overlapping zones “gaps” in the protection can be avoided.
The overlap can also provide another layer of protection. An example of
this would be for a fault inside a circuit breaker.
Zones of Protection
TRANSF- BUSBAR
BUSBAR ORMER ZONE
ZONE ZONE
FEEDER
ZONE
GENERATION ZONE
BUSBAR
ZONE FEEDER
ZONE
Electrical faults in the power system
Transmission lines 85%
Busbar 12%
Transformer/ Generator 3%
100%
Possible Faults
Insulation breakdown
- Short circuits phase-to-phase
- Inter-turns
- Ground faults
-- Over temperature
Oil leakage or contamination
- Oil level monitor
Reduced cooling
Transformer protection
• The transformer protection depends on its rating.
• Generally the following protection schemes are used to protect the
transformer:
Differential protection
Buchholz relay
Restricted earth fault relay
Overcurrent protection
Types of Protection
Overcurrent
Uses current to determine magnitude of fault
Overcurrent Protection
Overcurrent protection is employed as main protection against
phase faults for power transformers below about 5 MVA where the
differential protection is not economical.
For transformers above 5MVA, if differential protection is used as
main protection, overcurrent protection is used in addition, as a
back up for sustained through faults.
Buchholz Relay
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
EXPLOSION VENT
OTI ( OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATOR )
WTI ( WINDING TEMPERATURE INDICATOR )
MOG ( MAGNETIC OIL GAUGE )
Differential Protection
The differential protection of transformer is similar to that of generator
differential protection. But it involves some complications, as primary and
secondary currents are not identical.
The magnetizing current flowing in primary does not get reflected in
secondary side, so large restraining component is required.
The primary and secondary current magnitudes are related by turns ratio,
and phase angle depends on the vector group of the transformer. This can
be compensated by connecting CTs in corresponding opposite vector
group.
The protection should be stable against large inrush currents, second
harmonic restrains are used for this purpose.
Differential Protection
ic-ib ic
ib-ia ib
Ia-ic ia
Power Transformer
Operating
ia-ic Coil
ib-ia
Ic-ib
Restraining Coil
Restricted Earth Fault Relay
Earth fault relay connected in residual circuit of line CTs gives protection
against earth fault beyond the transformer.
Restricted earth fault relay is used to protect only the earth faults within
the transformer.
F2
If F1
I1
If
CT I2 Stabilising
Relay
If
Earth Fault Protection by Earth Fault Relay
residually connected Earth
Fault Relay
Fault types
Transient faults
– are common on transmission lines, approximately 80-
85%
– lightning's are the most common reason
– can also be caused by birds, falling trees, swinging lines
etc.
– will disappear after a short dead interval
Persistent faults
– can be caused by a broken conductor fallen down
– can be a tree falling on a line
– must be located and repaired before normal service
Pilot wire differential protection
• Pilot wires can be in soil or on towers.
• The resistance in the wires will limit the use on longer lines.
• The use is mostly restricted to distances up to 10 km.
L1
L2
L3
DL1
DL1
Digital communication with
DL2
optical fibers or by DL2
multiplexed channels
DL3 DL3
Directional Distance Relaying
“Directional Distance” protective relaying is
the preferred method used for transmission
line protection.
In order to provide this type of protection the
protective relay must be provided with Voltage
and Current values.
This is typically accomplished by using current
transformers and voltage transformers.
Directional Distance Relaying
Bus
BKR Relay
VT
CT
Line
Directional Relaying
Fault Tripping Direction
Current
BKR
CT
+
Directional
BUS
Relay
Positive
+
+ Breaker Trip
VT Circuit
+
Contacts
Closed
Directional Relaying
Fault Tripping Direction
Current
BKR
CT +
Directional
BUS
Relay
Positive
+
+ Breaker Trip
VT Circuit
+
Contacts
Open
Directional Distance Relaying
The distance to a fault can be determined
by the protective relay by comparing the
values of voltage and current.
All transmission lines have some
impedance.
The line impedance will increase as the
distance to the fault increases.
The impedance on ohms-per-km of transmission
line is calculated by relay engineers
Fault
Source-to-Bus
Line Impedance
Impedance
Source
Bus
21 Distance Relay
Distance Relaying
Distance relays work on the principle that when a fault occurs on a
transmission line, the only restriction to the flow of current is the
impedance of the conductor on the line.
The farther away a line fault is the smaller the fault current will be due to
the increased line impedance.
Line Impedance
Source-to-Bus
Impedance Fault
Lower Fault Current Due to Greater Line Impedance
Source
Bus
21 Distance Relay
Distance Relaying
The nearer a line fault is the greater the fault current will
be due to less line impedance.
Line Impedance
Source-to-Bus Greater Fault Current Due to
Impedance Less Line Impedance
Source Fault
Bus
21 Distance Relay
Distance Relaying
The Distance Relay monitors the current transformer secondary current.
The secondary current is a lower proportional value of the primary
current.
Line Impedance
Source-to-Bus
Impedance
Primary Fault Current
Source CT Fault
Secondary Current
Bus
21 Distance Relay
Distance Relaying
The Distance Relay will also monitor the voltage transformer
secondary that is a lower proportional value of the primary voltage.
Line Impedance
Source-to-Bus
Impedance
G
Primary Voltage
Bus
21 Distance Relay
VT Secondary
Voltage
Distance Relaying
Current flow through the
Source-to-Bus impedance will cause a “voltage drop” at the Bus.
The greater the current the greater the voltage drop.
Source
Line Impedance
Source-to-Bus
Impedance
Primary Fault Current
G
Voltage Fault
Drop
Primary Voltage Decreases
21 Distance Relay
Bus
VT Secondary
Voltage Decreases
Distance Relaying
The distance to a fault will affect the line current and bus voltage values
that the relay monitors.
Because of this a distance relay can be programmed to operate for a fault
at any point on the line up to a predetermined distance.
Line Impedance
Source-to-Bus
Impedance
Section of line protected
G
“Zone”
Source CT
Secondary Current
Primary Voltage
Bus
21 Distance Relay
VT Secondary
Voltage
Distance Relays
Zone Relaying
BKR BKR
21Z1
Zone 1
80-90% of Line
Zone 1
No intentional Time Delay
Distance Relays
Zone Relaying
21Z1
BKR BKR
A B
21Z1
Zone 1
80-90% of Line (No time delay)
Distance Relays
Zone Relaying
BKR BKR
Zone 2
120% of Line
21Z2
2Z2
Timer
Zone 2
Requires Time Delay (in absence of a communication scheme)
Distance Relays
Zone Relaying
21Z2
2Z2
Timer
BKR BKR
A B
Timer
2Z2
21Z2
Zone 2
120% of Line
(Timer for Delay)
Pilot Wire Relaying Schemes
Pilot Wire Relaying Schemes
BKR BKR
A B
Prot. Comm. Comm. Prot.
Relay Equip. Equip. Relay
communication link
Pilot Wire Relaying Schemes
BKR BKR
A B
Prot. Comm. Comm. Prot.
Relay Equip. Equip. Relay
Types of Communication:
• Dedicated Telephone Line
• Microwave
• Fiber Optics
• Power Line Carrier
Pilot Wire Relaying
PR-A PR-B
PR-B Guard PR-A Guard
(contact held open) (contact held open)
Trip Trip
BKR BKR
A B
Guard Signal
Prot. Comm. Comm. Prot.
Relay Equip. Equip. Relay
Guard Signal
Under normal conditions a “Guard” signal is transmitted to prevent false
operations.
Pilot Wire Relaying
PR-A PR-B
PR-B PR-A
Permissive Trip Permissive Trip
Trip Trip
BKR BKR
A B
Trip Signal
Prot. Comm. Comm. Prot.
Relay Equip. Equip. Relay
Trip Signal
During fault conditions the “Guard” signal is removed and a “Trip”
signal is transmitted.
Pilot Wire Relaying
PR-A PR-B
PR-B PR-A
Permissive Trip No Permissive
Trip Trip
BKR BKR
A B
Permissive
Trip Signal
Prot. Comm. Comm. Prot.
Relay Equip. Equip. Relay
Guard Signal
If the fault is “behind” the relay the relay will continue to send a Guard
signal.
Distance Protection
3
B23
B12
4
1 B24
2
Operating
Time R12 (iii)
R12 (ii) R23 (ii)
R12 (i) R23 (i) R34 (ii)
R34 (i)
1 2 3 4
CBIP Guidelines For Line Protection
Reach settings of distance protection
– Zone-I:
• to be set to cover 80-85% of protected line length
– Zone II:
• to be set to cover minimum 120% of length of principle line
section. However, in case of D/C lines 150% coverage must be
provided to take care of, under reaching due to mutual coupling
effect but, care is to be taken that it does not reach into next lower
voltage level.
CBIP Guidelines For Line Protection
Time setting of distance protection
– A Zone-II timing of 0.3 second is recommended. If a
long line is followed by a short line, then a higher
setting may be adopted on long line to avoid
indiscriminate tripping through Zone-II operation on
both lines.
– Zone-III timer should be set so as to provide
discrimination with the operating time of relays
provided in subsequent sections with which Zone-III
reach of relay being set overlaps.
