CHAPTER 1: PROPERTIES

OF FLUID
LAGATIC, RAQUEL D.
LAURDEN, CHRISTINE Q.
REALDA, MARK ANTHONY H.
1.1 TYPES OF FLUID
IDEAL FLUIDS REAL FLUIDS
No viscosity
Exhibit infinite viscosities

Incompressible
Compressible

Have uniform velocity when flowing

Non-uniform velocity distribution when flowing

NO friction between moving layers of liquid

Experience friction and turbulence in flow
NO eddy currents or turbulence
1.2 MASS DENSITY
The density of a fluid is its mass per unit of volume.

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑, 𝑀
𝜌=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉
UNITS:
English : slugs/ft3
Metric : grams/cm3
SI : kg/m3
For an ideal gas, its density can be found from the specific gas constant and
ideal gas law:
𝑝
𝜌=
𝑅𝑇
Where:
𝑝 = absolute pressure of gas in Pa
R = gas constant Joule/kg°K
For air,
R = 287 J/kg°K
R = 1,716 lb∘ft/slug°R
T = absolute temperature in °Kelvin
°K = °C + 273
°R = °F + 460
Table 1-1: Approximate Room Temperature Densities of
Common Fluids
FLUID 𝜌 in kg/m3
Air (STP) 1.29

Air (21°F, a 1tm) 1.20

Alcohol 790

Ammonia 602

Gasoline 720

Glycerin 1,260

Mercury 13,600

Water 1,000
 1.3 SPECIFIC VOLUME, VS
Specific volume, Vs, is the volume occupies by a unit mass of fluid.

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Vs=
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Relationship between Mass and Specific Volume:
𝑉𝑆 =volume/mass 𝑉𝑆 =1/ 𝝆
𝝆 =mass/volume 𝝆 =1/𝑉𝑆
Units:
English : lb/ft3
Metric : dyne/cm3
SI : N/m3 or kN/m3
 1.4 UNIT WEIGHT OR SPECIFIC WEIGHT, 𝛾

Specific weight or unit weight, 𝛾 is the weight of a unit volume of a fluid.

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑,𝑊
𝛾=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒,𝑉
𝛾=𝝆g
*specific weight varies from place to place due to
the change of acceleration due to gravity(g).
Units:
English : lb/ft3
Metric : dyne/cm3
SI : N/m3 or kN/m3
• SAMPLE PROBLEM

1. The specific weight of water at standard pressure and temperature is

9.81kN/𝒎𝟑 . the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6. compute the density of
water and the specific weight and density of mercury.
SOLUTION:
𝛾mercury =𝒔𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝛾𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 13.6(9.81) = 133.42kN/𝒎𝟑
𝝆mercury =𝒔𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝛾𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 13.6(1.00) = 13.6mg/𝒎𝟑
 1.5 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific gravity, s, is a dimensionless ratio of a fluid’s density to some standard
reference density. For liquids and solids, the reference density is water at 4°C
(39.2°)
𝝆 liquid
s=
𝝆 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
In gases, the standard reference to calculate the specific gravity is the density
of air.
𝝆 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑠=
𝝆 𝑎𝑖𝑟
For water at 4°C:
𝛾 = 62.4 lb/ft3 = 9.81kN/m3
𝝆 = 1.94 slugs/ft3 = 1000 kg/m3+
s = 1.0
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
 1.6 VISCOSITY
The property of a fluid which determines the amount of its resistance to
shearing forces. A perfect fluid would have no viscosity.

Consider two large, parallel plates at a

small distance y apart, the space
between them being filled with a fluid.
Consider the upper plate to be subject
to a force F so as to move with a
constant velocity U. The fluid in contact
with the upper plate will adhere to it and
will move with the same velocity U while
the fluid in contact with the fixed plate
will have a zero velocity. For small values
of U and y, the velocity gradient can be
assumed to be a straight line andd F
varies as A, U and y as:
 𝐴𝑈 𝐹 𝑈
F𝝰 or 𝝰
𝑌 𝐴 𝑌
𝑈 𝑑𝑉
But = (from the figure)
𝑌 𝑑𝑦
𝐹
= Shearing stress, τ
𝐴
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
τ 𝝰 or τ = k
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
where the constant of proportionality k is called the
dynamic of absolute viscosity denoted as 𝝻.
𝑑𝑉
τ=𝝻
𝑑𝑦
τ
𝝻=
𝑑𝑉 /𝑑𝑦
Where:
τ = shear stress in lb/ft2 or Pa
𝝻 = absolute viscosity in lb sec/ft2 (poises) or Pa-sec.
y = distance between the plates in ft or m
U = velocity in ft/s or m/s
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY (NU)

Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, 𝝻, to its mass
density, 𝝆.

𝝻
V=
𝝆
Where:
𝝻 = absolute viscosity in Pa-sec
𝝆 = density in kg/m3
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
The density of an oil is 850 kg/m3. Find its relative density
and Kinematic viscosity if the dynamic viscosity is 5 x 10-3
kg/ms.
𝝆oil = 850 kg/m3 𝝆water = 1000 kg/m3
𝛾oil = 850/1000=0.85
Dynamic viscosity = 𝜇 =5x10-3 kg/ms
Kinematic viscosity = v = 𝜇/ 𝝆
𝜇 5x10−3
v= = = 5x10-6 m2 s-1
𝝆 1000
 Table 1 – 2: Common Units of Viscosity
SYSTEM ABSOLUTE, 𝝻 KINEMATIC, v

English Lb-sec/ft2 (slug/ft-sec) ft2 / sec

Metric Dyne-s/cm2 (poise) cm2 /s (stoke)

SI Pa-s (N-s/m2) m2 /s

Note:
1 poise = 1 dyne∘s/cm2 = 0.1 Pa-sec (1 dyne = 10-5 N
1 stoke = 0.0001 m2 / s
 1.7 SURFACE TENSION, 𝝈, ( SIGMA)

The membrane of “skin” that seems to form on the free surface of a fluid is due to the
intermolecular cohesive forces, and is known as surface tension. Surface tension is the
reason that insects are able to sit on water and a needle is able to float on it. Surface
tension also causes bubbles and droplets to take on a spherical shape, since any
other shape would have more surface area per unit volume.
Pressure inside a droplet of Liquid:
4σ
𝑝=
𝑑
Where:
σ = surface tension in N/m
d = diameter of the droplet in m
𝑝 = gauge pressure in Pa
 1.8 CAPILLARITY
Capillarity (Capillary Action) is the
name given to the behavior of the
liquid in a thin-bore tube. The rise
or fall of a fluid in a capillary tube
is caused by surface tension and
depends on the relative
magnitudes of the cohesion of the
liquid and the adhesion of the
liquid to the walls of the
containing vessel. Liquids rise in
tubes they wet (adhesion ⟩
cohesion) and fall in tubes they do
not wet (cohesion ⟩ adhesion).
Capillary is important when using
tubes smaller than 3/8 inch
(9.5mm) in diameter.
 4σ𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
ℎ=
𝛾𝑑
For complete wetting, as with water on clean glass, the angle θ is 0°. Hence
the formula becomes
4σ
ℎ=
𝛾𝑑
Where:
h = capillary rise or depression in m
𝛾 = unit weight in N/m3
d = diameter of the tube in m
σ = surface tension in Pa
Table 1 – 3: Contact Angles, θ

Materials Angle, θ
Mercury – glass 140°
Water – paraffin 107°
Water – silver 90°
Kerosene – glass 26°
Glycerin – glass 19°
Water – glass 0°
Ethyl alcohol - glass 0°
1.9 COMPRESSIBILITY, 𝛽

Compressibility (also known as the coefficient of compressibility) is the fractional change in

the volume of a fluid per unit change in pressure in a constant temperature process.
∆𝑉
1
𝛽=− 𝑉
= Eq. 1 - 13
∆𝑝 𝐸𝐵

𝑑𝑉
𝑜𝑟 𝛽 = − 𝑉
Eq. 1 – 14
𝑑𝑝

Where:
∆𝑉 = change in volume
𝑉 = original volume
∆𝑝 = change in pressure
𝑑𝑉
= change in volume (usually in percent)
𝑉
2.0 BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY,𝐸𝐵
The bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid expresses the compressibility of the
fluid. It is the ratio of the change in unit pressure to the corresponding volume
change per unit of volume.

stress ∆𝑝
𝐸𝐵 = = ∆𝑉 Eq. 1 - 15
strain
𝑉
𝑑𝑝
or 𝐸𝐵 = − 𝑑𝑉 Eq. 1 – 16
𝑉
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Water in a hydraulic press, iniatially at 137 kPa absolute, is subjected to a
pressure of 116,280 kPa absolute. Using 𝐸𝐵 = 2.5 𝐺𝑃𝑎, determine the
percentagendecrease in the volume of water.

Solution:
𝑑𝑝
𝐸𝐵 = − 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
116,280−137 𝑥 103
2.5 x 109 =-
𝑑𝑉/𝑉
𝑑𝑉
= 4.65% decrease
𝑉
2.1 PRESSURE DISTURBANCES
Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid move in waves. The velocity or
celerity of pressure wave (also known as (acoustical or sonic velocity) is
expressed as:

𝐸𝐵 1
𝑐= = Eq. 1 – 17
𝜌 𝛽𝜌
 2.2 PROPERTY CHANGES IN IDEAL GAS
For any ideal gas experiencing any process, the equation of state is given by:

𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2
= Eq. 1 – 18
𝑇1 𝑇2
WHEN TEMPERATURE IS HELD CONSTANT, EQ. 1 – 18 REDUCES
TO (BOYLE’S LAW)
Boyle's law, most often referred to as the Boyle–Mariotte law, or Mariotte's law
(especially in France), is an experimental gas law that describes how the
pressure of a gas tends to increase as the volume of the container decreases.
A modern statement of Boyle's law is
The absolute pressure exerted by a given mass of an ideal gas is inversely
proportional to the volume it occupies if the temperature and amount of gas
remain unchanged within a closed system.
Mathematically, Boyle's law can be stated as

𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2 Eq. 1 – 19
 WHEN TEMPERATURE IS HELD CONSTANT (ISOTHERMAL
CONDITION), EQ. 1 -18 REDUCES TO (CHARLES’S LAW)

Charles' law (also known as the law of volumes) is an experimental gas law
that describes how gases tend to expand when heated. A modern statement
of Charles's law is:
When the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant, the Kelvin
temperature and the volume will be in direct proportion.[1]
This relationship of direct proportion can be written as:

𝑉1 𝑉2
= Eq. 1 – 20
𝑇1 𝑇2
 FOR ADIABATIC OR ISENTROPIC CONDITION (NO
HEAT EXCHANGED
An adiabatic process occurs without transfer of heat or mass of substances
between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings. In an adiabatic
process, energy is transferred to the surroundings only as work.[1][2] The
adiabatic process provides a rigorous conceptual basis for the theory used to
expound the first law of thermodynamics, and as such it is a key concept in
thermodynamics.

𝑝1 𝑉1𝑘 = 𝑝2 𝑉2𝑘 Eq. 1 -21

𝑉 𝑝2
𝑜𝑟 ( 1 )𝑘 = = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 Eq. 1 -22
𝑉2 𝑝1
𝑇2 𝑃1 𝑘−1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 = ( ) 𝑘 Eq. 1 – 23
𝑇1 𝑃2
Where:
𝑝1 = initial absolute pressure of gas
𝑝2 = final absolute pressure of gas
𝑉1 = initial volume of gas
𝑉2 = final volume of gas
𝑇1 = initial absolute temperature of gas in °K (°K = °C + 273)
𝑇2 = final absolute temperature of gas in °K
K = ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume.
Also known as adiabatic exponent.
Sample problem:
If 9 m3 of an ideal gas at24 ͦC and 150kPaa is compressed to 2 m3, (a) what is the resulting pressure
assuming isothermal conditions. (b) What would have been the pressure and temperature if the
process is isentropic. Use k=1.3

Solution
For isothermal condition:
p1V1 = p2V2
150(9)= p2(2)
p2=675 kPa abs

For isentropic process

𝑇2 𝑃1 𝑘−1
p1V1k = p2V2k = (𝑃 ) 𝑘
𝑇1 2

𝑇2 1,060 (1.3−1)
150(9)1.3 = p2(2)1.3 = ( 150 ) 1.3
24+273
p2 = 1,060 kPa abs T2 = 466.4 ͦK or 193.4 ͦC
2.3 VAPOR PRESSURE
• Molecular activity in a liquid will allow some of the molecules to escapes the
liquid surface. Molecules of the vapor also condense back into liquid. The
vaporization and condensation at constant temperature are equilibrium
processes. The equilibrium pressure exerted by these free molecules is known
as the vapor pressure or saturation pressure.

• Some liquids, such as propane, butane, ammoniaa, and Freon, have

significant vapor pressure at normal temperatures. Liquids near their boiling
point or that vaporizes easily are said to volatile liquids. Other liquids such as
mercury, have insignificant vapor pressures at the same temperature. Liquids
with low vapor pressure are used in accurate barometers.
• The tendency toward vaporization is dependent on the tempeparture of the
liquid. Boiling occurs when the liquid temperature is increased to the point
that the vapor pressure is equal to the local ambient (surrounding) pressure.
Thus, a liquid’s boiling temperature depends on the local ambient pressure,
as well as the liquid’s tendency to vaporize.
FLUID kPa, 20 ͦC
Mercury 0.000173
Turpentine 0.0534
Water 2.34
Ethyl alcohol 5.86
Ether 58.9
Butane 218
Freon-12 584
propane 855
ammonia 888
QUIZ
6. It is the property of a fluid which determines the amount of its resistance to
shearing forces.
7. It is the name given to the behavior of a liquid in a thin-bore tube.
8. It is a dimensionless ratio of a fluid’s density to some standard reference
density.
9-10. A reservoir of glycerin has a mass 1,200 kg and a volume of 0.952 cu.m.
Find its:
a. Density
b. Specific Gravity