ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY

CHARLES Z. ARIOLA JR, MSN, LPT, RN.

Subject Professor
INTRODUCTION TO TISSUE
 Tissues are groups of cells that are
similar in structure and function
 There are four primary tissues types:
 Epithelial:
covering
 Connective: support
 Nervous: control
 Muscular: movement
 Histology: study of tissues
 EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 Epithelium (plural: epithelia)
 Sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines
a body cavity (epithe=laid on, covering)
 Occurs in the body as:
 1. Covering and lining epithelium:
 Forms the outer layer of the skin, dips into and lines the
open cavities of the cardiovascular, digestive, and
respiratory systems, and covers the walls and organs of
the closed ventral body cavity
 2. Glandular epithelium:
 Fashions the glands of the body
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 In its role as an interface tissue, epithelium
accomplishes many functions, including:
 1. Protection
 2. Absorption
 3. Filtration
 4. Excretion
 5. Secretion
 6. Sensory Reception
 Special Characteristics of
Epithelium
 Has many characteristics that distinguish
them from other tissue types:
 1. Cellularity:
 Composed of closely packed cells with little
extracellular material between
 2. Specialized contacts:
 Adjacent epithelial cells are bound together
to form continuous sheets by specialized
contacts such as desmosomes and tight
junctions
 Special Characteristics of
Epithelium
 3. Polarity:
 Exhibits polarity by having an apical surface
(upper free surface exposed to the body
exterior or the cavity of an internal organ))
and a lower attached basal surface
 All epithelia exhibit polarity, meaning that cell
regions near the apical surface differ from
those near the basal surface in both structure
and function
 Example:
Some apical surfaces have villi while the
basal surface acts as a filter determining
which molecules will be allowed to enter
the epithelium
 Special Characteristics of
Epithelium
 4. Supported by connective tissue:
 Supported by the underlying connective
tissue (reticular lamina) containing collagen
fibers
 5. Innervated but avascular:
 Nourished by substances diffusing from blood
vessels in the underlying connective tissue
 6. Has a high regeneration capacity:
 Replace lost cells rapidly by cell division
Classification of Epithelia
 Each epithelial tissue is given two
names:
 The first name indicates the
number of layers present:
 Simple (one):
 Composed of a single cell
layer
 Typically found where
absorption and filtration
occur and a thin
epithelial barrier is
desirable
 Stratified (more than one):
 Consist of two or more
cell layers stacked one on
top of the other
 Common in high-
abrasion areas where
protection is important,
such as the skin surface
and the lining of the
mouth
 The second name describes the
shape of the cells
Classification of Epithelia
Classification of Epithelia
 All epithelial cells have six
(somewhat irregular) sides
 Apical surface view of an
epithelial sheet looks like a
honeycomb
 This polyhedral shape allows the
cells to be closely packed
 Cells vary in height
 Three common shapes of
epithelial cells: nucleus will be the
same shape
 1. Squamous cells are: flattened
and scale-like (squam=scale)
 2. Cuboidal cells are: boxlike
 Approximately as tall as they are
wide
 3. Columnar cells are: tall and
column shaped
Classification of Epithelia
 Classification of Epithelia
 Simple epithelia are easy to classify by
cell shape because all cells in the layer
usually have the same shape
 Stratified epithelia:
 Cell shapes usually differ among the
different cell layers
 Named according the shape of the cells in
the apical layer
Simple Epithelia
 Concerned with absorption,
secretion, and filtration
 Consist of a single layer and are
usually very thin
 Protection is not one of their
specialties
Simple Squamous Epithelium
DESCRIPTION
- single layer of flattened cells with disc-shaped central
nuclei and space cytoplasm
- the simplest of the epithelia
FUNCTIONS
- allows passage of materials by diffusion and filtration in
sites where protection is not important
- it secretes lubricating substances
LOCATIONS
- kidney glomeruli, air sacs of the lungs, lining of the
heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels.
Simple Squamous Epithelium
Simple Cuboidal
Epithelium
Simple Columnar
Epithelium
Pseudostratied Columnar
Epithelium
Stratified Epithelia

 Contains two or more cell layers

 Main function is protection
 Regenerate from below:
 The basal cells divide and push apically to
replace the older surface cells
 Consequently more durable than the simple
epithelia
 Stratified squamous epithelium is
composed of several layers with the cells
on the free surface being squamous-
shaped and the underlying cells being
cuboidal or columnar in shape
 Transitional epithelium forms the lining of
the hollow organs of the urinary system
that stretch as they fill
Stratified Squamous
Eputhelium
Stratified Cuboidal
Epithelium
 Rare
 Found mostly in the ducts of some of the larger
glands
 Sweat glands
 Mammary glands
Stratified Columnar
Epithelium
 Found in limited distribution with small amounts in
the pharynx, male urethra, and lining some
glandular ducts
 Only its apical layer of cells is columnar
Transitional Epithelium
Glandular Epithelia

 A gland consists of one or more cells

that make and secrete (export) a
particular product:
 This product, called a secretion, is an
aqueous (water-based) fluid that usually
contains proteins
 Some release lipid-rich or steroid-rich
secretion
 Secretion is an active process:
 Glandular cells obtain needed substances
from the blood and transform them
chemically into a product that is then
discharged from the cell
 Notice: the term secretion can refer to
BOTH the gland’s product and the process
of making and releasing that product
Glandular Epithelia

 Classified as to:
 Where they release their products:
 Endocrine: internally secreting
 Exocrine: externally secreting
 Relative cell numbers making up the gland:
 Unicellular: one-celled
 Scattered within epithelial sheets
 Multicellular: many-celled
 Form by invagination (inward growth) or
evagination (outward growth) from an epithelial
sheet
Endocrine Glands

 Ductless glands
 Produce hormones: regulatory
chemicals that they secrete by
exocytosis directly into the
extracellular space
 From there the hormones enter the blood
or lymphatic fluid and travel to specific
target organs
 Each hormone prompts its target organ(s)
to respond in some characteristic way
 Most are complex multicellular organs
 Some are individual hormone-producing
cells in organs (intestines/brain)
Exocrine Glands

 More numerous than endocrine glands

 Secrete their products onto body surfaces (skin) or
into body cavities:
 Unicellular glands directly (exocytosis)
 Multicellular glands via an epithelial-walled duct
that transports the secretion to the epithelial surface
 Mucous, sweat, oil, salivary glands
 Liver, (bile), pancreas (digestive enzymes)
Unicellular Exocrine Glands
 Only important example of
a unicellular (one-celled)
gland is the goblet cell
 Shaped like a goblet
(drinking glass with a stem)
 (d): Sprinkled in the
epithelial linings of the
intestinal and respiratory
tracts amid columnar cells
with other functions
 In humans produce mucin:
complex glycoprotein that
dissolves in water when
secreted
 Once dissolved, mucin
forms mucus, a slimy
coating that both protects
and lubricates surfaces
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
Unicellular Exocrine Glands (Goblet
Cells)
Multicellular Exocrine
Glands
 Two basic parts:
 An epithelium-derived duct
 Secretory unit consisting of secretory cells
(acini)
 In all BUT the simplest glands,
supportive connective tissue surrounds
the secretory unit and supplies it with
blood vessels and nerve fibers, and
forms a fibrous capsule that extends
into the gland proper and divides the
gland into lobes
Multicellular Exocrine Glands
Structural Classification
 On the basis of their
duct structures
 Simple:
 Unbranched duct
EXOCRINE GLANDS
Multicellular Exocrine Glands
Structural Classification
 Compound:
 Branched duct
 Compond: mulitple
branched ducts
 Further classified by their
secretory units:
 Tubular: if the secretory cells
form tubes
 Alveolar: if the secretory cells
form small, flask-like sacs
(alveolus=small hollow
cavity)
 Tubuloalveolar: if they have
BOTH types of secretory units
(tubes and alveolar)
 NOTE: acinar is used
interchangeably with
alveolar
EXOCRINE GLANDS
Multicellular Exocrine Glands
Functional Classification
 Modes of Secretion:
 Merocrine Glands:
 Secrete their products
by exocytosis as
produced
 Secretory cells are not
altered in any way
 Examples:
 Sweat glands
 Pancreas
 Salivary glands
Merocrine Gland
Multicellular Exocrine Glands
Functional Classification
 Modes of Secretion:
 Holocrine Glands:
 Accumulate their
products within them
until they rupture
 They are replaced by
the division of
underlying cells
 Secretion includes the
synthesized product plus
dead cell fragments
(holo=all)
 Examples:
 Sebaceous (oil) glands
Holocrine Gland
Multicellular Exocrine
Glands
Functional

Classification
Modes of Secretion:
 Apocrine Glands:
 Present in all animals but questionable in humans
 Accumulated their products just beneath the free
surface
 Eventually, the apex of the cell pinches off (apo=from
off), releasing the secretory granules and a small amount
of cytoplasm
 Example: controversy in humans
 Some believe mammary glands are apocrine while
others say merocrine
Connective Tissue

 Found everywhere in the body

 It is the most abundant and widely distributed
of the primary tissues
 Amounts vary in particular organs
 Example:
 Skin is primarily connective tissue
 Brain has very little connective tissue
 Four main classes and several subclasses:
 1. Connective tissue proper:
 Includes fat and fibrous tissue of ligaments
 2. Cartilage
 3. Bone tissue
 4. Blood
CONNECTIVE TISSUE

 Does more than just connect body parts

 It has many forms and functions
 Major functions include:
 Binding and support
 Protection
 Insulation
 Transportation
Common Characteristics of
Connective Tissue
 1. Common origin: All connective tissue
arises from an embryonic tissue called
mesenchyme
 2. Degrees of vascularity: Connective
tissue ranges from avascular (cartilage)
to poorly vascularized (dense connective
tissue) to highly vascularized
 3. Extracellular matrix: Connective tissue
is composed mainly of nonliving
extracellular matrix that separates the
cells of the tissue
 Enables connective tissue to withstand
physical trauma
Connective Tissue Origins
EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
Structural Elements of Connective
Tissue

 Three main elements:

 Ground substance: extracellular matrix
 Fibers: extracellular matrix
 Cells
 Properties of the cells and the
composition and arrangement of
extracellular matrix elements vary
tremendously
 Resulting in an amazing diversity of
connective tissues
 Matrix can be delicate and fragile (soft
packing around an organ) to rope-like
(tendons and ligaments)
Structural Elements of Connective
Tissue

 Even though there are diverse types they still have

a common plan:
 Prototype (model) used is areolar connective tissue
 All other subclasses are simply variants of this
common tissue type
AREOLAR CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
Ground Substance
 Unstructured material that fills the space
between the cells and contains the fibers
 Composed of:
 Interstitial (tissue) fluid
 Cell adhesion proteins: serves as
connective tissue glue that allows
connective tissue cells to attach
themselves to matrix material
 Fibronectin
 Laminin
 Proteoglycans:
 Consist of a protein core to which
glycosaminoglycans are attached
 Strandlike GAGs ( chondroitin
sulfate, keratan sulfate,
hyaluronic acid) are large,
negatively charged
polysaccharides that stick out
from the core protein like the
fibers of a bottle brush
 Intertwine and trap
water, forming a
substance that varies
from a fluid to a viscous
gel
PROTEOGLYCAN
Ground Substance
 Holds large amounts of
fluid and functions as a
molecular sieve, or
medium, through which
nutrients and other
dissolved substances
can diffuse between
the blood capillaries
and the cells
 Fibers embedded
make it less pliable and
impede diffusion
somewhat
AREOLAR CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
Fibers

 Fibers of the
connective tissue
provide support
 Three types of fibers
are found in
connective tissue
matrix:
 Collagen
 Elastic
 Reticular
AREOLAR CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
Collagen Fibers
 Strongest and most
abundant
 Constructed primarily of the
fibrous protein collagen
 Secreted into the
extracellular space, where
they assemble
spontaneously into cross-
linked fibers
 Collagen fibers are
extremely strong and
provide high tensile strength
(ability to resist longitudinal
stress) to the matrix
 Stress test show that
collagen fibers are stronger
than steel fibers of the
same size
AREOLAR CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
Elastic Fibers
 Long, thin fibers that form
branching networks in the
extracellular matrix
 Contain a rubberlike
protein, elastin, that allows
them to stretch and recoil
like rubber bands
 Connective tissue can
stretch only so much before
its thick, ropelike collagen
fibers become taut
 When the tension lets up,
elastic fibers snap the
connective tissue back to
its normal length an shape
 Found where elasticity is
needed: skin, lungs, blood
vessel walls
AREOLAR CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
Reticular Fibers
 Fine collagenous fibers
(form and chemically
different) and are
continuous with collagen
fibers
 Branch extensively forming
delicate networks
(reticul=network) that
surround small blood vessels
and support the soft tissue of
organs
 Abundant where
connective tissue abuts
other tissue types
 Example:
 Basement membrane of
epithelial tissues
 Around capillaries
AREOLAR CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
Cells
 Each major class of connective
tissue has a fundamental cell
type that exists in immature
and mature forms:
 The undifferentiated cells,
indicated by the suffix blast
(bud, sprout, forming), are
actively mitotic cells that
secrete the ground substance
and the fibers characteristic of
their particular matrix
 The primary blast cell types by
connective tissue class are:
 1. Fibroblast: connective tissue
proper
 2. Chondroblast: cartilage
 3. Osteoblast: bone
 4. Hematopoietic stem cell:
blood
Connective Tissue Origins
Cells
 Once they synthesize
the matrix, the blast
cells assume their less
active, mature mode,
indicated by the suffix
cyte
 Mature cells maintain
the health of the matrix
 If the matrix is injured,
they can easily revert to
their more active state to
repair and regenerate
the matrix
Connective Tissue Origins
Cells
 Additionally, connective
tissue is home to an
assortment of other cell types:
 Fat cells: nutrient-storing cells
 Mobile cells that migrate into
the connective tissue matrix
from the bloodstream:
 White blood cells:
neutrophils, eosinophils,
lymphocytes
 Cell types that respond to
injury: mast cells,
macrophages
 Antibody-producing plasma
cells
AREOLAR CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
Mast Cells
 Mast cells and macrophages are
very important to overall body
defense
 Oval mast cells typically cluster
along blood vessels
 Act as sensitive sentinels to detect
foreign substances (e.g., bacteria,
fungi)
 Initiate local inflammatory
responses against foreign
substances
 Cytoplasm contains conspicuous
secretory granules (mast=stuffed full
of granules) containing several
chemicals that mediate
inflammation, especially in severe
allergies
 Heparin: anticoagulant chemical
that prevents blood clotting when
free in the bloodstream
 Histamine: substance that makes
capillaries leaky
 Proteases: protein-degrading
enzymes
AREOLAR CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
Macrophages
 Mast cells and macrophages
are very important to overall
body defense
 Macro=large; phago=eat
 Large, irregularly shaped cells
that avidly phagocytize a
broad variety of foreign
materials:
 Foreign molecules
 Bacteria
 Dust particles
 Dead tissue cells
 Active in the immune system
 May attach to connective
tissue fibers (fixed) or may
migrate freely through the
matrix
AREOLAR CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
Types of Connective Tissue

 Mesenchyme forms during the early weeks of

embryonic development from the mesoderm
layer and eventually differentiates into other
connective tissues
EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
Connective Tissue Proper

 Two Subclasses:
 Loose Connective Tissue:
 Areolar
 Adipose
 Reticular
 Dense Connective Tissue:
 Dense Regular
 Dense Irregular
 Elastic
 Except for bone, cartilage, and blood, all mature
connective tissues belong to this class
Types of Connective Tissue

 Areolar connective tissue serves to bind body

parts together while allowing them to move freely
over one another, wraps small blood vessels and
nerves, surrounds glands, and forms the
subcutaneous tissue
AREOLAR CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
Types of Connective Tissue

 Adipose (fat) tissue is a richly vascularized tissue

that functions in nutrient storage, protection, and
insulation
ADIPOSE CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
Types of Connective Tissue

 Reticular connective tissue forms the internal

framework of the lymph nodes, the spleen, and
the bone marrow
RETICULAR CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
Types of Connective Tissue

 Dense connective tissue is one of the two

subclasses of connective tissue proper;
 Dense regular connective tissue contains closely
packed bundles of collagen fibers running in the
same direction and makes up tendons and
ligaments
 Dense irregular connective tissue contains thick
bundles of collagen fibers arranged in an irregular
fashion, and is found in the dermis
DENSE REGULAR
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
DENSE IRREGULAR
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Cartilage

 Stands up to both tension (stretching) and compression

 Qualities intermediate between dense connective tissue
(very flexible) and bone
 Tough but flexible, providing a resilient rigidity to the structures
it supports
 Lacks nerve fibers and is avascular
 Receives its nutrients by diffusion from blood vessels located in
the connective tissue membrane (perichondrium) surrounding
it
 Ground substance contains large amounts of:
 GAGs: glycosaminoglycans (Chrondroitin sulfate, Hyaluronic
acid):Intertwine and trap water, forming a substance
that varies from a fluid to a viscous gel
 Contains firmly bound collagen fibers and in some cases
elastic fibers
 Matrix contains an exceptional amount of tissue fluid (up
to 80% water)
 Movement of tissue fluid in its matrix enables cartilage to
rebound after being compressed and also helps to nourish the
cartilage cells
Cartilage

 Because cartilage is avascular and aging

cartilage cells lose their ability to divide,
cartilages heal slowly when injured
 During later life, cartilages tend to calcify or even
ossify (become bony)
 In such cases, the chondrocytes are poorly
nourished and die
Types of Connective Tissue

 Three varieties of cartilage:

 Hyaline
 Elastic
 Fibrocartilage
Types of Connective Tissue
Hyaline Cartilage
 Hyaline cartilage (gristle): is the most abundant
cartilage providing firm support with some
pliability
 Blue-white color
 Hyalin=glass
 Articular (ends of long bones)
HYALINE CARTILAGE
Types of Connective Tissue
Elastic Cartilage
 Elastic cartilage is found where strength and
exceptional stretchability are needed, such as the
external ear
 More elastin fibers
 Found where strength and exceptional stretchability
are needed
ELASTIC CARTILAGE
Types of Connective Tissue
Fibrocartilage
 Fibrocartilage is found where strong
support and the ability to withstand
heavy pressure are required, such as
the intervertebral disks
 Often found where hyaline cartilage
meets a true ligament or a tendon
 Perfect intermediate between hyaline
cartilage and dense regular connective
tissues
 Found where strong support and the
ability to withstand heavy pressure are
required
FIBROCARTILAGE
Types of Connective Tissue
Bone
 Bone (osseous tissue) has an exceptional
ability to support and protect body structures
due to its hardness, which is determined by
the additional collagen fibers and calcium
salts found in the extracellular matrix
 Provides cavities for fat storage and synthesis of
blood cells
 Matrix is similar to that of cartilage but is harder
and more rigid because, in addition to its more
abundant collagen fibers, bone has an added
matrix element—inorganic calcium salts (bone
salts)
 Blood is classified as a connective tissue
because it developed from mesenchyme,
and consists of blood cells and plasma
proteins surrounded by blood plasma
Types of Connective Tissue
Bone
 Osteoblasts: immature bone cells
 Produce the organic portion of the matrix;
then bone salts are deposited on and
between the fibers
 Osteocytes: mature bone cells
 Reside in the lacunae (cavity in bone or
cartilage) within the matrix they have
made
 Unlike cartilage, the next firmest
connective tissue
 Vascularized
BONE
Types of Connective Tissue
Blood
 Fluid within blood vessels
 Most atypical connective tissue:
 Does not connect things or give support
 Classified as connective tissue
because it develops from
mesenchyme and consists of blood
cells, surrounded by a nonliving fluid
matrix called blood plasma
 Fibers of blood are soluble protein
molecules that become visible only during
blood clotting
BLOOD
COVERING and LINING
MEMBRANES

 Membranes that incorporate BOTH

connective tissue and epithelial tissues
 Three types:
 Cutaneous
 Mucous
 Serous
 Essentially they all are continuous
multicellular sheets composed of at least two
primary tissue types:
 An epithelium bound to an underlying layer of
connective tissue proper:
 Hence a simple organ
 Synovial membranes: line joint cavities and
consist of connective tissue ONLY
COVERING and LINING MEMBRANES
Cutaneous Membrane (a)

 Cutis=skin
 Cutaneous membrane, or skin, is an organ system consisting
of a keratinized squamous epithelium (epidermis) firmly
attached to a thick layer of dense irregular connective tissue
(dermis)
 Unlike other epithelial membranes, the cutaneous membrane
is exposed to the air and is a dry membrane
MEMBRANES
COVERING and LINING MEMBRANES
Mucous Membranes (b)

 Mucosae
 Mucous membranes line body cavities that open to the exterior, such
as those of hollow organs of the digestive, respiratory, and urogenital
tracts
 They are ALL wet (moist) membranes bathed by secretions or, in the
case of urinary mucosa, urine
 Name mucosa refers to the location of the membrane, NOT its cell
composition, which varies
MEMBRANES
COVERING and LINING MEMBRANES
Mucous Membranes (b)

 Most mucosae contain either stratified squamous or simple columnar

epithelia
 Underlain by a layer of loose connective tissue called the lamina propria
(one’s own layer)
 In some mucosae, the lamina propria rests in a third (deeper) layer of smooth muscle
cells
 Often adapted for absorption and secretion
 Most secrete mucus (digestive and respiratory)
 Urinary tract does NOT
COVERING and LINING MEMBRANES
Serous Membranes (c)

 Serosae
 Moist membranes found in closed ventral body cavities
 Serosa: moist membrane found in closed ventral body cavities
 Visceral serosa: the part of the double-layered membrane that lines the outer
surfaces of organs within the ventral body cavity
 Parietal serosa: the part of the double-layered membrane that lines the walls of the
ventral body cavity
 Serous membranes consist of simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium)
resting on a thin layer of loose connective (areolar) tissue
MEMBRANES
COVERING and LINING MEMBRANES
Serous Membranes (c)

 Mesothelial cells enrich the fluid that filters from the capillaries in the associated
connective tissue with hyaluronic acid (GAGs)
 Result is the thin, clear serous fluid that lubricates the facing surfaces of the parietal (lines
the walls of the ventral body cavity) and visceral layers (lines outer surface of the organ),
so that they slide across each other easily
 Named according to their site and specific organ associations:
 Example:
 Pleura: serosa lining the thoracic wall and covering the lungs
 Pericardium: serosa lining the heart
 Peritoneums: serosa ling the abdominopelvic cavity and viscera
MEMBRANES
NERVOUS TISSUE

 Nervous tissue is the main component of the

nervous system (brain, spinal cord, and nerves),
which regulates and controls body functions
 Nervous tissue is composed of two types of cells:
 Neurons are specialized cells that generate and
conduct electrical impulses
 Supporting cells are nonconductive cells that
support, insulate, and protect the neurons
NERVE TISSUE
MUSCLE TISSUE

 Muscle tissues are highly cellular, well-vascularized tissues

responsible for movement
 Muscle cells (muscle fibers) possess myofilaments:
 Elaborate versions of the actin and myosin filaments that bring
about movement or contraction in all muscle cell types
 There are three types of muscular tissue:
 Skeletal muscle is packaged by connective tissue sheets into
organs called skeletal muscles that are attached to the
skeleton and produces voluntary body movement
 Cardiac muscle is responsible for the involuntary movement of
the heart
 Found ONLY in the walls of the heart
 Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the hollow organs
(digestive and urinary tract organs, uterus, and blood vessels):
 No striations
 Acts to squeeze substances through these organs by
alternately contracting and relaxing
 Involuntary
SKELETAL MUSCLE
CARDIAC MUSCLE
SMOOTH MUSCLE
TISSUE REPAIR

 When tissue injury occurs, the

responses usually take place in
connective tissue
 Tissue repair occurs in two ways:
 Regeneration:
Replacement of destroyed
tissue with the same kind of
tissue
 Fibrosis:
Involves proliferation of fibrous
connective tissue called scar
tissue
Steps of Tissue Repair

 Three steps are involved in the tissue repair process:

 1. Inflammation: (a)
 Tissue trauma causes injured tissue cells, macrophages, mast
cells, and others to release inflammatory chemicals, which
cause the capillaries to dilate and become very permeable
 Allows white blood cells (neutrophils, monocytes,) and
plasma fluid rich in clotting proteins, antibodies, and other
substances to seep into the injured area
 The leaked clotting proteins construct a clot:
 Stops the loss of blood
 Holds the edges of the wound together isolating the
injured area preventing bacteria, toxins, or other
harmful substances from spreading to surrounding
tissues
 Part exposed to the air quickly dries and hardens
forming a scab
 Leaves excess fluid, bits of destroyed cells, and other debris in
the area, which are eventually removed via lymphatic vessels
or phagocytized by macrophages
TISSUE REPAIR
Steps of Tissue Repair

 2.Organization restores the blood supply (b):

 Blood clot is replaced by granulation tissue:
 A delicate pink tissue composed of several elements:
 Contains capillaries that grow in from nearby areas and
lay down a new capillary bed
 Granulation tissue is actually named for these
capillaries, which protrude nublike from its surface,
giving it a granular appearance
 Proliferating fibroblasts produce growth factors as well as
new collagen fibers to bridge the gap
 Some fibroblasts have contractile properties that
pull the margins of the wound together
 Macrophages digest the original blood clot
 Collagen fiber deposit continues
 Granulation tissue, destined to become scar tissue (a
permanent fibrous patch), is highly resistant to infection
because it produces bacteria-inhibiting substances
TISSUE REPAIR
Steps of Tissue Repair

 3.Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent repair

(c):
 Surface epithelium begins to regenerate (b)
 Growing under the scab, which soon detaches
 As the fibrous tissue beneath matures and contracts, the
regenerating epithelium thickens until it finally resembles
that of the adjacent skin (c)
 End result is a fully regenerated epithelium, and an
underlying area of scar tissue
 May be invisible, or visible as a thin white line, depending
on the severity of the wound
 The repair process described (1,2,3) follows healing
of a wound (cut, scrape, puncture) that breaches
an epithelial barrier
 In pure infections (pimple or sore throat), healing is
solely by regeneration
 Usually no clot or scarring
 Only severe (destructive) infections lead to scarring
TISSUE REPAIR
TISSUE REPAIR
TISSUE REPAIR
Regenerative Capacity of
Different Tissues

 The generative capacity of tissues varies widely

among the tissue types
 Epithelial, bone, areolar connective tissue, dense
irregular tissue, and blood clotting tissue regenerate
extremely well
 Smooth muscle and dense regular connective tissue
have moderate capacity for regeneration
 Skeletal muscle and cartilage have a weak
regeneration capacity
 Cardiac muscle and nervous tissue of the brain and
spinal cord have virtually no functional regenerative
capacity
 Hence, routinely replaced by scar tissue
 Scar tissue is strong (mostly collagen fibers) , but it lacks
the flexibility and elasticity of most normal tissue
 Cannot perform the normal functions of the tissue it has
replaced
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS
OF
TISSUES
 Embryonic and Fetal Development of
Tissues
 Primary germ layer formation is one of the first
events of embryonic development
 Ectoderm is the most superficial of the layers
 Mesoderm is the middle layer
 Endoderm is the deepest layer
 The primary germ layers specialize to form the
four primary tissues
 With increasing age, epithelia become
thin, the amount of collagen fibers in the
body decreases, and bone, muscle, and
nervous tissue atrophy
EMBRYO TISSUE
CANCER