Theory of Errors and

Adjustment
BY: GENESIS A CASIÑO
 BASIC
Chapter 1 CONCEPT OF
MATRICES
1.1 . Definition and
Classification of matrices
What is a Matrix?

 A set of mn numbers (real or complex), arranged in a

rectangular formation (array or table) having m rows
and n columns and enclosed by a square bracket [ ] is
called mxn matrix (read “m by n matrix”) .
A mxn matrix is expressed as:
The letters aij stand for real numbers. Note
that aij is the element in the ith row and jth
column of the matrix .Thus the matrix A is
sometimes denoted by simplified form as
(aij) or by {aij} i.e., A = (aij) Matrices are
usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C
etc and its elements by small letters a, b, c
etc.
Order of a Matrix:

 The order or dimension of a matrix is the ordered pair

having as first component the number of rows and as
second component the number of columns in the
matrix. If there are 3 rows and 2 columns in a matrix,
then its order is written as (3, 2) or (3 x 2) read as three
by two. In general if m are rows and n are columns of a
matrix, then its order is (m x n).
Examples:
Some type of Matrices
i. Row Matrix

 A matrix consisting of a single row is called a row matrix

or a row vector
ii. Column Matrix

 a matrix having single column is called a column matrix

or a column vector.
iii. Null or Zero Matrix

 A matrix in which each element is „0‟ is called a Null or

Zero matrix. Zero matrices are generally denoted by the
symbol O. This distinguishes zero matrix from the real
number 0.
iv. Square matrix

 A matrix A having same numbers of rows and columns is

called a square matrix. A matrix A of order m x n can be
written as Amxn. If m = n, then the matrix is said to be a
square matrix. A square matrix of order n x n, is simply
written as An.
Main or Principal
(leading)Diagonal
 The principal diagonal of a square matrix is the ordered
set of elements aij, where i = j, extending from the upper
left-hand corner to the lower right-hand corner of the
matrix. Thus, the principal diagonal contains elements
a11, a22, a33 etc.
Example:diagonal consisting of 1, 2 & 0
Particular cases of a
square matrix:
Diagonal matrix:

 A square matrix in which all elements are zero except

those in the main or principal diagonal is called a
diagonal matrix. Some elements of the principal
diagonal may be zero but not all.
Diagonal Matrices example
Matrix are
considered to
be diagonal
matrix if and
only if
Scalar Matrix:

 A diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal elements

are same, is called a scalar matrix
example
Identity Matrix or Unit matrix

 A scalar matrix in which each diagonal element is

1(unity) is called a unit matrix. An identity matrix of order
n is denoted by In.
identity matrices of order 2 and 3
A matrix is an
identity matrix if
and only if
 Note: If a matrix A and identity matrix I are
comformable for multiplication, then I has the property
that AI = IA = A i.e., I is the identity matrix for
multiplication.
Equal Matrices

 Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if and only if

they have the same order and each element of matrix
A is equal to the corresponding element of matrix B i.e
for each i, j, aij = bij
 A = B because the order of matrices A and B is same
and aij = bij for every i , j.
Example of equal matrix

 Find the values of x , y , z and a which satisfy the

matrix equation
The Negative of a Matrix

 The negative of the matrix Amxn, denoted by –Amxn, is

the matrix formed by replacing each element in the
matrix Amxn with its additive inverse.
example
 for every matrix Amxn, the matrix –Amxn has
the property that A + (–A) = (–A) + A = 0
i.e., (–A) is the additive inverse of A. The
sum Bm-n + (–Amxn) is called the difference
of Bmxn and Amxn and is denoted by
Bmxn – Amxn.
Operations on matrices
Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar

 If A is a matrix and k is a scalar (constant), then

kA is a matrix whose elements are the elements
of A , each multiplied by k
example
Addition and subtraction of Matrices

 If A and B are two matrices of same order mxn

then their sum A + B is defined as C, mxn matrix
such that each element of C is the sum of the
corresponding elements of A and B .
example
 Similarly, the difference A – B of the two matrices A
and B is a matrix each element of which is obtained by
subtracting the elements of B from the corresponding
elements of A
 If A, B and C are the matrices of the same order mxn
then A + B = B + A and (A + B) + C = A + (B
+ C) i.e., the addition of matrices is commutative and
Associative respectively. Note: The sum or difference of
two matrices of different order is not defined.
Product of Matrices:

 Two matrices A and B are said to be

conformable for the product AB if the number
of columns of A is equal to the number of rows
of B. Then the product matrix AB has the same
number of rows as A and the same number of
columns as B. Thus the product of the matrices
Amxp and Bpxn is the matrix (AB)mxn. The
elements of AB are determined as follows:
 The element Cij in the ith row and jth column of
(AB)mxn is found by
cij = ai1b1j + ai2b2j + ai3b3j + ……….+ ainbnj
example
answer
 Thus c11 is obtained by multiplying the elements of the
first row of A i.e., a11 , a12 by the corresponding
elements of the first column of B i.e., b11 , b21 and
adding the product. Similarly , c12 is obtained by
multiplying the elements of the first row of A i.e., a11 , a12
by the corresponding elements of the second column
of B i.e., b12 , b22 and adding the product. Similarly for
c21 , c22 .
note

 1 . Multiplication of matrices is not commutative i.e., AB ≠ BA in

general.
 2 . For matrices A and B if AB = BA then A and B commute to
each other
 3 . A matrix A can be multiplied by itself if and only if it is a square
matrix. The product A.A in such cases is written as A2. Similarly we
may define higher powers of a square matrix i.e., A . A2 = A3 ,
A2. A2 = A4
 4. In the product AB, A is said to be pre multiple of B and B is said
to be post multiple of A.
example
 Remark: If A, B and C are the matrices of order (m x p), (p x q) and (q x n)
respectively, then i. (AB)C = A(BC) i.e., Associative law holds.

 C(A+B) = CA + CB and (A + B)C = AC + BC

i.e distributive laws holds.
 Note: that if a matrix A and identity matrix I are conformable for
multiplication, then I has the property that AI = IA = A i.e, I is the identity
matrix for multiplication
DETERMINANTS
The Determinant of a Matrix:

 The determinant of a matrix is a scalar

(number), obtained from the elements of a
matrix by specified, operations, which is
characteristic of the matrix.
 Note:
The determinants are defined only for square matrices. It is denoted by det A
or |A| for a square matrix A.
example
The determinant of the (3 x 3) matrix
 Note: Each determinant in the sum (In the
R.H.S) is the determinant of a submatrix of A
obtained by deleting a particular row and
column of A.
 These determinants are called minors. We take
the sign + or - , according to (-1)i+j aij Where i
and j represent row and column.
Minor and Cofactor of Element

 The minor Mij of the element aij in a given determinant is

the determinant of order (n – 1 x n – 1) obtained by
deleting the ith row and jth column of Anxn.
For example in the determinant
Minors
 The scalars Cij = (-1)i+j Mij are called the cofactor of the
element aij of the matrix A.
 Note: The value of the determinant in equation (1) can
also be found by its minor elements or cofactors, as
a11M11 – a12M12 + a13M13 Or a11C11 + a12C12 + a13C13
Hence the det A is the sum of the elements of any row
or column multiplied by their corresponding cofactors.
The value of the determinant can be found by
expanding it from any row or column.

find det A by expansion about (a) the first row

(b) the first column.
Properties of the
Determinant
1. Interchanging
the corresponding
rows and columns
of a determinant
does not change
its value (i.e., |A|
= |A‟|).
Expand it by first row
Expand it by first column
2. If two rows or
two columns of a
determinant are
interchanged, the
sign of the
determinant is
changed but its
absolute value is
unchanged.
3. If every element
of a row or
column of a
determinant is
zero, the value of
the determinant is
____
4. If two rows or
columns of a
determinant are
identical, the
value of the
determinant is
zero.
5. If every element
of a row or
column of a
determinant is
multiplied by the
same constant K,
the value of the
determinant is
multiplied by that
constant.
6. The value of a
determinant is not
changed if each
element of any row
or of any column is
added to (or
subtracted from) a
constant multiple of
the corresponding
element of another
row or column.
7. The
determinant of
a diagonal
matrix is equal to
the product of
its diagonal
elements.
8. The determinant
of the product of
two matrices is
equal to the
product of the
determinants of
the two matrices,
that is |AB| =
|A||B|.
9. The determinant in
which each element
in any row, or
column, consists of
two terms, then the
determinant can be
expressed as the
sum of two other
determinants