QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
DATA, DESIGN AND
ANALYSIS
Usama Bin Iqbal
Qualitative Research Techniques
Follow the Following format for designing
research.
MAIN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
DESIGN
Action research
Ethnography
Feminist research
Grounded theory
Phenomenology
Narrative research
Case Study
Historical research
ACTION RESEARCH
Definition: In action research, the researcher works in
close collaboration with a group of people to improve a
situation in a particular setting
Objective
Discussion and suggestions on how to improve a ‘process’ or
‘situation’ by taking immediate action
Data Collection
It is not about writing what you think to be true but
about collecting data and making conclusions based on
that data via:
Experience –by observing (participant observation)
Enquiry –by asking (informal interviews, formal
structured interviews, questionnaires)
Examine –by using records (archival documents, notes,
memos, etc.)
ACTION RESEARCH
Data Analysis
Description and interpretation of the issue/s;
led to reflect on:
Did the research actually lead to change or did
a solution to a problem make the difference?
Example
“…….to assess, how can our college move to a
performance based model for undergraduate
teacher preparation programs –how can
disciplinary policies be enforced consistently in
our school.........?”
ETHNOGRAPHY
Ethnography is a design of inquiry coming
from anthropology and sociology in which the
researcher studies the shared patterns of
behaviors, language, and actions of an intact
cultural group in a natural setting over a
prolonged period of time.
Data collection often involves observations
and interviews.
ETHNOGRAPHY
Objective
A description of the cultural behavior of a
group or individual
Data Collection
Primarily observations and interviews with
additional artifacts, (Examples include stone
tools, pottery vessels, metal objects such as
weapons, and items of personal adornment
such as buttons, jewelry and clothing. .)
during extended time in the field, e.g. 6
months –1 year
A collection of data through fieldwork
experiences
ETHNOGRAPHY
Data Analysis
Description, thematic analysis, interpretation
Researcher produces the participants’ views
through closely edited quotes and has final word on
interpretation
Example
“…….the purpose of this study was to identify and
describe the conflicts that experienced teachers
encountered as they switched from a traditional
approach to teaching mathematics to a
constructivist-sociological approach –examines the
beliefs and practices of teachers experiencing a
common phenomena related to their approach to
teaching……..”
FEMINISM
Definition….
FEMINISM
Data Collection
Life stories, interviews, focus groups and
conversational analysis; diaries, letters,
documents and texts; questionnaires
Data Analysis
Content Analysis; Oral History; Ethnography;
Discourse Analysis; and -participant and non-
participant observation.
GROUNDED THEORY
Grounded theory can be used to modify and
extend existing theories but it is particularly
useful in situations where little is known
about a topic.
In grounded theory, methods such as focus
groups and interviews tend to be the
preferred data collection method, along with
a comprehensive literature review which
takes place throughout the data collection
process. This literature review helps to
explain emerging results.
GROUNDED THEORY
Data Collection.
Interviews with 20-30 individuals to
‘saturate’ categories and detail a theory
In-depth interviews -most commonly used
Relies on open ended questions
Questions can be modified to reflect
emerging theory
Observational methods
GROUNDED THEORY
Grounded theory is a design of inquiry from
sociology in which the researcher derives a
general, abstract theory of a process, action,
or interaction grounded in the views of
participants.
This process involves using multiple stages of
data collection and the refinement and
interrelationship of categories of information
(Charmaz, 2006; Corbin & Strauss, 2007)
GROUNDED THEORY
Data Analysis
Analyzed via coding and memo writing
Types of coding:
Open coding refers to the process of generating initial
concepts from data
Axial coding to the development and linking of concepts
into conceptual families-coding paradigm
Selective coding to the formalizing of these
relationships into theoretical frameworks
Memo writing is the intermediate step between coding and the
first draft of completed study
Hypotheses and ideas recorded during analysis
Not be treated as complete and fixed, as they are initial
analytical thoughts and can be altered as thinking changes
GROUNDED THEORY
Example
“……..the purpose of this study was to
understand the ‘relationship of a social club
to the teachers’ who frequently visit it on
Friday evening. Researcher found that
teachers used the social club to facilitate
their movement from “professional” to
“personal” self –it examined a phenomena of
interest to the researcher (i.e., teachers
congregating at a particular social club on
Friday evenings) and developed a conceptual
understanding of it………”
PHENOMENOLOGY
Phenomenological research is a design of inquiry
coming from philosophy and psychology in which
the researcher describes the lived experiences of
individuals about a phenomenon as described by
participants.
This description culminates in the essence of the
experiences for several individuals who have all
experienced the phenomenon.
This design has strong philosophical underpinnings and
typically involves conducting interviews (Giorgi, 2009;
Moustakas, 1994).
Phenomenology is the study of “phenomena”:
appearances of things, or things as they appear in our
experience, or the ways we experience thing.
PHENOMENOLOGY
Data Collection
Long interviews with up to 10 people
Studies the structure of various types of
experience including:
Perception
Thought
Memory
Imagination
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
What is the essential meaning of an experience?
For example:
What is the essence of being a mother after 6
miscarriages?
What are the feelings of a mother whose only child
is lost in Army Public incident?
The only survivor of a plane crash who is rescued
after a month from a Plane / Ship crash.
What was his experience in that jungle? How he
survived?
DATA ANALYSIS
Researcher chooses phenomenon and selects
appropriate models, frameworks, or theories
to guide data collection
Participants interviewed
A description is written that fully describes
the experience.
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
A process of systematically examining the
past events to give an account of what has
happened in the past.
Not a mere accumulation of facts and dates
or even a description of past events.
A flowing, dynamic account of past events
which involves an interpretation of these
events in an attempt to recapture the
nuances, personalities, and ideas that
influenced these events.
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Data Collection
Archival records
Documents (i.e. diaries, memos, newspapers,
books, etc.).
Interviews (oral histories -with individuals
who have had experience with or have
knowledge of the research topic)
Relics (i.e. photographs, maps, architectural
design, etc.).
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
DATA COLLECTION
Primary source–that has a direct involvement
with the event being investigated like a diary,
an original map, or an interview with a
person that experienced the event.
Secondary source–that was created from a
primary source such as books written about
the event, secondary sources are considered
less useful than primary sources.
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Data Analysis
A description of data by the process of criticism (both;
internal and external).
Every information source must be evaluated for its
authenticity and accuracy because any source can be
affected by a variety of factors such as prejudice, economic
conditions, and political climate.
Two types of evaluations every source must pass:
External Criticism –determine the validity, trustworthiness, or
authenticity of the source i.e. handwriting analysis or
determining the age of the paper on which something was
written.
Internal Criticism –determine the reliability or accuracy of the
information contained in the sources collected; done by both
positive and negative criticism.
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Example
“……..the purpose of study ‘A’ is to examine
the changes in standardized testing of ‘Drug
X’ over the last 40 years. This study
addresses the historical developments
characterizing the use of standardized ‘Drug
X’ tests over a 40 years period……..”
CASE STUDY
Case studies are a design of inquiry found in
many fields, especially evaluation, in which
the researcher develops an in-depth analysis
of a case, often a program, event, activity,
process, or one or more individuals.
Cases are bounded by time and activity, and
researchers collect detailed information using
a variety of data collection procedures over a
sustained period of time (Stake, 1995; Yin,
2009, 2012).
CASE STUDY
Data Collection
Documents (letters, agendas, progress
reports)
Archival records (Service records,
organizational charts, budgets etc.)
Interviews (typically open-ended but also
focused, structured & surveys are possible)
Direct observations (formal or casual; useful
to have multiple observers)
Participant observation (assuming a role in
the situation and getting an inside view of
the events)
CASE STUDY
Data Analysis
Pattern matching (explanatory/descriptive)
-comparing empirical based patterns with
predicted one(s)
Explanation-building (mainly explanatory)
-analyzing case study data by building an
explanation about the case and identifying a set
of causal links
Time-series analysis -“How” and “why”
questions about relationships and changes of
events over time
CASE STUDY
Example
“…….this study explored the meaning of
“inclusion” for three disabled students who
had been placed in a regular education
setting, it examines in-depth a phenomena of
interest to the researcher (i.e., the meaning
of inclusion) in a natural context viewing it
from the participant’s perspectives……..”
NARRATIVE RESEARCH
Narrative research is a design of inquiry
from the humanities in which the
researcher studies the lives of individuals
and asks one or more individuals to provide
stories about their lives (Riessman,2008).
This information is then often retold or
restored by the researcher into a narrative
chronology.
Often, in the end, the narrative combines
views from the participant’s life with those of
the
researcher’s life in a collaborative narrative
(Clandinin & Connelly, 2000).
NARRATIVE RESEARCH
Data Collection
Collects the individual stories told to the researcher
or gathered through field texts; primarily via
interviews and documents, where researcher:
Gathers stories and analyzes them for elements
of the story
Rewrites the story to place it in a chronological
sequence
Where:
Re-story provides a causal link among ideas
Information would include interaction, continuity,
and situation
NARRATIVE RESEARCH
Data Analysis
Stories, re-stories, description of context,
themes, where focus is on:
Relevant facts and content to research
interest
Authority and credibility of the source:
reliability
Timeliness of the evidence
Quality of the source: writing, accuracy, and
thoroughness
NARRATIVE RESEARCH
Example
“…….to understand, the experiences of a
veteran teacher who has been moved into an
administrative position in her school………?”
“……..to study, what does “inclusion” mean
to a special needs child who is placed in a
regular education classroom……….?’
