Chapter Two

The Concept of Object

Orientation
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Chapter Topics
 Real-world objects.
 Object identity.
 Object’s attributes and operations.
 Classes and classification.
 Encapsulation and information hiding
 Object interface.
 Aggregate and composite objects.
 inheritance and polymorphism.
 Object-oriented technology.
 Object-oriented modeling and the Unified
Modeling Language (UML).
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Introducing Objects
 To understand object-oriented technology,
methodology and modeling, we must first
understand what objects are.

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An Object Is:
 something that is perceived as an entity
and referred to by name;
 something perceptible by one or more of
the senses;
 something intelligible or perceptible by the
mind.

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Identity
 The identity of an object is what distinguishes it
from all other objects.
 Unique:
Unique The object’s identity remains solid and
inviolable, regardless of errors or deliberate attempts by
one entity to fake the identity of another entity.

 Unchanging:
Unchanging an object may change superficially or
profoundly, but our perception of its unique identity does
not change.

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Attributes
 Attributes are features, properties, qualities
or characteristics that are associated with
an object.

 Attributes are usually paired with values

that qualify or quantify the attribute.

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Operations
 An operation is what an object does or is
capable of doing.
 If an object is the subject of a sentence with an
active voice, then the verb expresses an
operation:
 Dog barks
 Ball bounces
 Sun shines

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State of an Object
 State is the condition of an object at a
certain stage in its lifetime.
 An object has a set of attributes and these
attributes accept a range of values. The
combination of these attributes and their
associated values constitute the state of an
object.

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State of an Object
 The concept of “state” needs three further
clarifications:
 The condition of an object changes
 The same object can be described by
several states simultaneously, and
 An object may have secondary states
that require a primary state, but can
change without any changes in the
primary state.

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Class
 Class is a set of objects that share the
same attributes and operations.

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Abstraction
 Abstraction is identifying those
characteristics (attributes and operations)
of an entity that distinguish it from other
kinds of entities.
 The process of selection that separates
certain attributes and operations from a
concrete object is called abstraction.

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Generalization
 To generalize is to conclude that
characteristics of a particular entity apply
to a broader range of entities.
 Needed to construct a Class

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Instance
 An instance is the concrete manifestation
of a class.

 For example, John Doe is an “instance” of the

class Human.
Human

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Superclass and Subclass
 A superclass results from generalizing a set
of classes.

 A subclass results from specializing a

superclass.

 The relationship among superclasses and

subclasses is called class hierarchy.

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Virtual Objects
 Information systems are composed of
virtual objects that embody the same
concepts as real objects.

 All characteristics of real objects apply to

virtual objects but, for a virtual object,
class is both an abstraction and a template.

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Real Object vs Virtual Object

- (Objects/Instances
Class Employee of Class Employee)
Employee - Employee 1
(Real World) -id
-Employid - Employee 2
-Name - Employee 3
-Address - …
-… - Employee n

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Two Types of Class
 Business Classes
 “Business” classes are those that have a
counterpart in the real world. The discovery of
this type of classes and their relationships is
the main task of analysis.
 Patient, student, tree, poet, shirt
 Utility Classes
 Utility classes are those that lack a direct
counterpart in the real world and are used to
create objects that manage the responsibilities
of the information system.
 Command buttons, menus, dropdown lists
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Attributes and Operations
of Virtual Objects
 Attributes and operations of virtual objects
are defined, not discovered.

 The range of values that can be assigned

to an attribute is called the attribute’s
domain.

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Encapsulation
 Encapsulation is the
packaging of data and
processes within one
single unit.

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Information Hiding
 Information hiding conceals and protects
what goes on inside an object from the
outside world.
 When you use an ATM, encapsulation and
information hiding ensure that:
 you are not burdened with the complexity of
how the machine works,
 cannot perform operations that you are not
allowed to, and
 cannot change the way the machine operates.

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Interface
 An object’s interface
consists of operations
that are available to
the public.

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Aggregation and Composition

 In object-oriented terminology, the

relationship of one object to its component
objects is called aggregation.

 A strong form of aggregation in which the

life of components relies on the life of the
whole is called composition.

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Aggregation and Composition

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Abstract and Concrete Classes
 Classes that can be instantiated into actual
(real or virtual) objects are called concrete
classes.

 Classes that cannot be instantiated into

actual (real or virtual) objects are abstract
classes.

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Inheritance
 Inheritance is the
mechanism by which a
subclass incorporates
the behavior of a
superclass.

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Polymorphism

 Polymorphism is the ability of objects belonging to

different classes to perform the same operation
differently.

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Object-Oriented Technology
 Object-oriented technology is a response to
the ever-increasing demand for complex
information systems. It has become
possible by the immense leaps achieved by
the information technology.

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Object-Oriented Languages
 Simula
 Smalltalk
 C++
 PowerBuilder
 visual Basic
 Java
 .Net

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Object-Oriented Modeling
 Object-oriented analysis and design is
using an object-oriented approach to
building conceptual and logical models of
the system.

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The Unified Modeling Language (UML)
 UML is a modeling language for object-
oriented system analysis, design and
deployment. UML is not a product, nor is it
a process or a methodology.

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The Unified Modeling Language
 The Unified Modeling Language is a
language, that provides the “primitives” (or
the basic elements) for building object-
oriented conceptual (analysis) and concrete
(design) models.

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UML Supports Multiple Views of Same
System
 Owner’s View
 what the owner (or business) wants, or the
conceptual view of the system.
 Architect’s View
 how the architect conceives the solution, or
the logical view of the system.
 Builder’s View
 the blueprints for building the product, or the
physical view of the system.

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UML Embodies Four Properties
① Visualization
② Specification
③ Construction
④ Documentation

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Visualization: UML Diagrams
 UML provides a set of graphical elements that are
combined to form diagrams. Each diagram is a
visual presentation or view of the system and
satisfies one or more broad but overlapping types
of modeling:
 Behavioral
 modeling represents the interaction of the system
with the outside world.
 Structural
 modeling represents the components of the system
and their interrelationships.
 Dynamic
 modeling represents how the components of the
system interact with the outside world and with each
other to satisfy the behavioral requirements of the
system.
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© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 2- 38
Specification, Construction, and
Documentation
 Specification
 UML provides precise and complete models for
the three major activities of system
development: analysis (behavioral model),
design (conceptual model), and implementation
(interactive model).
 Construction
 UML models are compatible with object-
oriented languages.
 Documentation
 UML modeling tracks major development
activities throughout the system lifecycle.

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Next: Methodology
 In the next chapter, we shall discuss
methodology. We shall also argue that an
iterative and object-oriented approach,
combined with modeling, offers the best
hope for software development projects.

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