SURFACE ROUGHNESS

MEASUREMENT
 Why Surfaces are Important:

•Aesthetic reasons
•Surfaces affect safety
•Friction and wear depend on surface characteristics
•Surfaces affect mechanical and physical properties
•Assembly of parts is affected by their surfaces
•Smooth surfaces make better electrical contacts
 Surface metrology
• Surface metrology examines the deviation between one point (or points)
on a surface and another points (other points) on the same surface
• Surface metrology is a concern of many branches of science and widely
involved in the world of commerce and manufacturing
• Surface metrology or surface topology refers to the geometry and
texture of surfaces
• The condition of surface is defined by its characteristics:
• Surface texture (finish)
• Roundness (a function of geometry)
• Material
• Hardness
• Surface metallurgy
 Surface metrology
• Three forms of asperities
1. Roughness
Vary according to the length
2. Waviness of spacing or wavelength
3. Error of form
• The fourth asperity is not distinguish by wavelength; it is flaw
• Lay is the direction of the asperities which in most cases roughness
and waviness are perpendicular to each other
Surface assessment
 Roughness – the finest
of the asperities
 Waviness - concern the
more widely spaced
ones
 Flaw – surface defect
 Lay – The direction of
the asperities

Asperity is defined as
unevenness and
roughness of surface.
 Surface Texture

The topography and geometric features of the

surface:
•When highly magnified, the surface is anything but
straight and smooth
–It has roughness, waviness, and flaws
•It also possesses a pattern and/or direction
resulting from the mechanical process that
produced it
 Elements of Surface Texture
1.Roughness -small, finely-spaced deviations from nominal surface
–Determined by material characteristics and processes that formed the
surface
2.Waviness -deviations of much larger spacing
–Waviness deviations occur due to work deflection, vibration, heat
treatment, and similar factors
–Roughness is superimposed on waviness
3.Lay -predominant direction or pattern of the surface texture
4.Flaws -irregularities that occur occasionally on the surface
–Includes cracks, scratches, inclusions, and similar defects in the surface
–Although some flaws relate to surface texture, they also affect surface
integrity
Symbols Used to Identify Surface Finish and its characteristics
 SURFACE ROUGHNESS SURFACE WAVINESS
Also called as primary texture Also called as secondary texture
Surface irregularities of small wavelength Surface irregularities of considerable
wavelength

Caused by direct action of the cutting Caused due to inaccuracies of slides, wear of
elements on the material i.e., cutting tool guides, misalignment of centers (1st order
shape, feed rate (3rd order geometrical geometrical irregularity), vibrations (2nd order
irregularity), friction, wear or corrosion, geometrical irregularity) etc.,
rupture of material during separation of chip
(4th order geometrical irregularity) etc.,
This is also known as `micro geometrical This is also known as `micro geometrical
irregularities’ which constitute 3rd and 4th irregularities’ which constitute 1st and 2nd
order irregularities order irregularities

Ratio = lr/hr < 50 Ratio = lr/hr> 50

 Surface Roughness and Surface Finish

•Surface roughness -a measurable characteristic based

on roughness deviations

•Surface finish -a more subjective term denoting

smoothness and general quality of a surface
–In popular usage, surface finish is often used as a
synonym for surface roughness
–Both terms are within the scope of surface texture
 Surface Finish Definitions
• Surface deviations: departures from nominal surface in form of
waviness, roughness, flaws, lay, and profile
• Waviness: surface irregularities that deviate from mean surface in
form of waves
• Roughness: relatively finely spaced irregularities superimposed on
waviness pattern
• Caused by cutting tool or abrasive grain action
• Irregularities narrower than waviness pattern
• Central line average value(CLA): The measurements are generally
made in a direction at right angles to the direction of tool marks on the
surface.
Surface Roughness

ACTUAL SURFACE
-surface obtained after a
manufacturing process

NOMINAL SURFACE
Mean line -average of irregularities
superimposed on the surface
 Surface Finish Definitions
• Mean line of the Profile: It is the line that divides the effective profile such
that, within sampling length the sum of squares of distances (y1, y2, ….yn)
between effective points and mean line is minimum.
• Center line of the Profile: It is the line for which the area embraced by the
profile above or below the line is equal.
• Profile: contour of specified section through a surface
• Sampling length (l): It is the length necessary for evaluation of the
irregularities to be taken into account. It is measured in a direction parallel
to the direction of profile. 0.8 mm is considered to be satisfactory. 25 mm
is taken as the common accepted value for waviness measurement.
This chart categorizes
the various lay
configurations and
shows the
standardizes symbols
used on drawing
Symbols that Indicate Direction of Lay

|| Parallel to boundary line of surface

indicated by symbol
_|_Perpendicular to boundary line of surface
indicated by symbol
X Angular in both directions on surface
indicated by symbol
M Multidirectional
C Approximately circular to center of the
surface indicated by symbol
R Approximately radial in relation to the
center of surface indicated by symbol
 Surface Roughness

The geometrical characteristics of a surface include,

1. Macro-deviations,
2. Surface waviness, and
3. Micro-irregularities.
The surface roughness is evaluated by the height Rt and
mean roughness index Ra of the micro-irregularities.
• Actual profile, Af
–It is the profile of the actual surface obtained by finishing
operation.

• Reference profile, Rf
–It is the profile to which the irregularities of the surface is referred
to. It passes through the highest point of the actual profile.

• Datum profile, Df
–It is the profile, parallel to the reference profile .it passes through
the lowest point B of the actual profile
• Mean Profile, Mf
-It is that profile, within the sampling length chosen (L) such that the
sum of the material-filled areas enclosed above it by the actual profile
is equal to the sum of the material void area enclosed below it by the
profile.
• Peak to valley height, Rt
-It is the distance from the datum profile to the reference profile.
• Mean roughness index, Ra
-It is the arithmetic mean of the absolute value of the highest hi
between the actual and mean profile.
x=L

Ra = 1/L ∫|h
x=0 | dx , where L is sampling length
i
Surface Roughness expected from manufacturing processes
Surface Roughness expected from manufacturing processes
 INDICATION OF SURFACE FINISH

The basic symbol consists of two legs of unequal length

inclined at approximately 600 to the line representing the
considered surface.

The symbol must be represented by thin line

If the removal of material by machining is required, a bar is added to

the basic symbol,

If the removal of material is not permitted, a circle is added to the

basic symbol.

When special surface characteristics have to be indicated, a

line is added to the longer arm of any of the above symbols,
 Indication of Surface Finish

The value or values defining the principal criterion of roughness are added to the
symbols

a- surface roughness value

Roughness ‘a’ obtained by any Roughness ‘a’ obtained by Roughness ‘a’ shall be obtained
production process removal of material by without removal of any
machining material

If it is necessary to impose maximum and minimum limits

of the principal criterion of surface roughness, both values
shall be shown.

maximum limit (a1) ;minimum limit (a2).

 If it is required that the required surface finish be produced by one particular production method, this
method shall be indicated in plain language on an extension of the longer arm of the symbol

Indication of machining allowance where it is necessary to specify the value of the machining allowance,
this shall be indicated on the left of the symbols. This value shall be expressed in millimeters.
 Position of the Specifications of the Surface Roughness

The specifications of surface texture shall be placed relative to the symbol as shown in figure.
Generally to indicate the surface roughness, the symbol is used instead of value.
The relation is given in following table.
Numerical Evaluation of Surface Finish:

A numerical assessment of surface finish can be carried out in a

number of ways. These numerical values are obtained with respect to
a datum. In practice, the following three methods of evaluating
primary texture (roughness) of a surface are used:

(1) Peak to valley height method

(2) The average roughness method

(3) Form factor method

(1) Peak to valley height method:
• The Peak to Valley method cuts the peaks off the wave, and then uses the band between
to determine the roughness.
• The value obtained would not give a representative assessment of the surface.
• To overcome this PV (Peak to Valley) height is defined as the distance between a pair of
lines running parallel `to the general ‘lay' of the trace positioned so that the length lying
within the peaks at, the top is 5% of the trace length, and that within the valleys at the
bottom is 10% of the trace length.
(2) The average roughness:
(a) C.L.A Method: In this method, the surface roughness is measured as the average
deviation from the nominal surface. Centre Line Average or Arithmetic Average is defined
as the average values of the ordinates from the mean line, regardless of the arithmetic
signs of the ordinates. CLA value measure is preferred to RMS value measure because its
value can be easily determined by measuring.
(b) R.M.S. Method: In this method also, the roughness is measured as the average
deviation from the nominal surface. R.M.S value is defined as the square root of
the arithmetic mean of the values of the squares of the ordinates of the
surface measured from a mean line. It is obtained by setting many equidistant
ordinates on the mean lines ( 1, 2, 3 … . )and then taking the root of the mean of the
squared ordinates.
(c) Ten Point Height Method: In this method, the average difference between the five
highest peaks and five lowest valleys of surface texture within the sampling length,
measured from a line parallel to the mean line and not crossing the profile is used to
denote the amount of surface roughness. This method is relatively simple method of
analysis and measures the total depth of surface irregularities within the sampling
length. But it does not give sufficient information about the surface, as no account is
taken of frequency of the irregularities and the profile shape. It is used when it is desired
to control the cost of finishing for checking the rough machining.

Rz
3. Form factor There are certain characteristic which may be used to evaluate surface
texture.
Form Factor: The load carrying area of every surface is often much less than might be
thought. This is shown by reference to form factor. The form factor is obtained by
measuring the area of material above the arbitrarily chosen base line in the section and
the area of the enveloping rectangle. Then,
 Measurement of roughness
The roughness may be measured, using any of the following :

1. Straight edge
2. Surface gauge
3. Optical flat
4. Profilometer
5. Profilograph
6. Talysurf
FIGURE 1. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A PROFILOGRAPH
Profi lograph :

•The Principle of working of a tracer type profi lograph is shown in Figure 1.

•The work to be tested is placed on the table of the instrument.
•The work and the table are traversed with the help of a lead screw.
•The stylus which is pivoted to a mirror moves over the tested surface.
•Oscillati ons of the tracer point are transmitt ed to the mirror.
•A light source sends a beam of light through lens and a precision slit to the
oscillati ng mirror.
•The refl ected beam is directed to a revolving drum, upon which a sensiti sed fi lm
is arranged.
•This drum is rotated through two bevel gears from the same lead screw that
moves the table of the instrument.
•A profi logram (Fig.2) will be obtained from the sensiti sed fi lm, that may be sub-
sequently analysed to determine the value of the surface roughness.
FIGURE 2. PROFILOGRAM
DIGITAL PROFILOMETER
A skid is a part of the gauge that has a radius large enough to prevent movement in and
out the roughness characteristics of the surface. The stylus and the skid are usually
independent in their height (Z) movement but move together in the measurement
direction. Surface deviations are recorded as the difference between the stylus and the
skid movement in the Z direction. In other words, the skid acts as the straightness datum
as it skids over the top of the surface
FIGURE 3. TAYLOR-HOBSON TALYSURF
•Taylor-Hobson Talysurf is a stylus and skid type of instrument working on carrier modulating
principle.
•Its response is more rapid and accurate than other Surface Meters.
•The measuring head of this instrument consists of a sharply pointed diamond stylus of about 0.002
mm tip radius and skid or shoe which is drawn across the surface by means of a motorized driving
unit.
•In this instrument the stylus is made to trace the profile of the surface irregularities, and the
oscillatory movement of the stylus is converted into changes in electric current by the arrangement as
shown in Fig. 3.
•The arm carrying the stylus forms an armature which pivots about the center piece of E-shaped
stamping.
•On two legs of (outer pole pieces) the E-shaped stamping there are coils carrying an a.c. current.
These two coils with other two resistances form an oscillator.
•As the armature is pivoted about the central leg, any movement of the stylus causes the air gap to
vary and thus the amplitude of the original a.c. current flowing in the coils is modulated.
•The output of the bridge thus consists of modulation only as shown in Fig.
•This is further demodulated so that the current now is directly proportional to the vertical
displacement of stylus only.
A carrier signal is a transmitted electromagnetic pulse or wave at a steady base
frequency of alternation on which information can be imposed by increasing signal
strength, varying the base frequency, varying the wave phase, or other means. This
variation is called modulation.
Demodulation is extracting the original information-bearing signal from a carrier wave.
A demodulator is an electronic circuit  that is used to recover the information content
from the modulated carrier wave. The signal output from a demodulator may
represent sound (an analog audio signal), images (an analog video signal)
or binary data (a digital signal).
Tomlinson Surface Meter
 Comparators

•In Metrology, The comparator is a precision instrument, which is used to compare the
dimensions of the given component with the actual working standard.
•The Comparator is an indirect type of precision measurement because it will not measure the
dimension, it will indicate the difference in measurement between the given component and
working standard, and another magnification instrument is needed to measure this difference
with accuracy. 
•The comparator (which will have a dial indicator) will be used along with the slip gauges.
•The Slip gauges will have the working standard dimension, but the workpiece will have a
deviation from this working standard.
•The workpiece dimension may be less than or greater than this(Slip gauge) dimension.

In short, Comparator is a device which

(1) Picks up small variations in dimensions.
(2) Magnifies it.
(3) Displays it by using indicating devices, by which comparison can be made with some standard
value.
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF COMPARATOR
Characteristics of Good Comparators:

1. It should be compact and easy to handle.

2. It should give quick response or quick result.
3. It should be reliable, while in use.
4. There should be no effects of environment on the comparator.
5. It should be sensitive as per the requirement.
6. The design and construction should be robust.
7. It should be linear in scale so that it is easy to read and get uniform
response.
8. It should have less maintenance.
9. It should have hard contact point, with long life.
10. It should be free from backlash and wear.
 Uses Of Comparators

The various ways in which the comparators can be used are as follows :
(i) In mass production, where components are to be checked at a very fast rate.
(ii) As laboratory standards from which working or inspection gauges are set
and correlated.
(iii) For inspecting newly purchased gauges.
(iv) Attached with some machines, comparators can be used as working gauges
to prevent work spoilage and to maintain required tolerances at all stages of
manufacturing.
(v) In selective assembly of parts, where parts are graded in three or more
groups depending upon their tolerances.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPARATORS

1. Mechanical Comparator: It works on

gears pinions, linkages, levers, springs etc.
2. Pneumatic Comparator: Pneumatic
comparator works by using high pressure
air, valves, back pressure etc.
3. Optical Comparator: Optical comparator
works by using lens, mirrors, light source
etc.
4. Electrical Comparator: Works by using
step up, step down transformers.
5. Electronic Comparator: It works by using
amplifier, digital signal etc.
6. Combined Comparator: The combination
of any two of the above types can give the
best result.
 Dial Indicator

• It operates on the principle, that a very slight upward pressure on the spindle at the
contact point is multiplied through a system of gears and levers. It is indicated on the
face of the dial by a dial finger.

• Dial indicators basically consists of a body with a round graduated dial and a contact
point connected with a spiral or gear train so that hand on the dial face indicates the
amount of movement of the contact point.

• They are designed for use on a wide range of standard measuring devices such as dial
box gauges, portal dial, hand gauges, dial depth gauges, diameter gauges and dial
indicator snap gauge.

• The movement mechanism of the instrument is housed in a metal case for it's
protection.

• The large dial scale is graduated into 100 divisions. The indicator is set to zero by the
use of slip gauges representing the basic size of part.

• L.C. of dial indicator is 0.001 mm

Applications:

1. To check the trueness of milling machine arbor and to check the

parallelism of shaper arm with the table surface
2. To determine the errors in geometrical form such as ovality,
roundness and taper.
3. For taking accurate measurement of deformation such as in
tension and compression.
4. To determine positional errors of surfaces such as parallelism,
squareness and alignment.
5. To check the alignment of lathe centers.
This comparator was
developed by C.F. Johansson. A
Johansson Mikrokator (also
called Abramson's movement)
is a mechanical comparator
used to obtain mechanical
magnification of the difference
in length as compared to a
standard. It works on the
principle of a button spinning
on a loop of string.
 Johansson Mikrokator

Advantages of Mechanical Comparator:

1. They do not require any external source of energy.
2. These are cheaper and portable.
3. These are of robust construction and compact design.
4. The simple linear scales are easy to read.
5. These are unaffected by variations due to external source of energy
such air, electricity etc.

Disadvantages:
(i) Range is limited as the pointer moves over a fixed scale.
(ii)Pointer scale system used can cause parallax error.
(iii)There are number of moving parts which create problems due to
friction, and ultimately the accuracy is less.
(iv) The instrument may become sensitive to vibration due to high
inertia.
Johansson Mikrokator
Solex Pneumatic Gauge
Mechanical - Optical Comparator
 Mechanical - Optical Comparator

Principle:
In mechanical optical comparator, small variation in the plunger
movement is magnified: first by mechanical system and then by optical
system.

Construction:
The movement of the plunger is magnified by the mechanical
system using a pivoted lever. From the Figure the mechanical
magnification = x2 / x1 (LEVER PRINCIPLE). High optical
magnification is possible with a small movement of the mirror. The
important factor is that the mirror used is of front reflection type only.
For a deflection α of the mirror, the image will be tilted by an angle 2α.
The optical magnification is 2 (x4/x3)

Therefore Total magnification = 2(x4.x2/x3.x1)

Advantages:
(i)These Comparators are almost weightless and have less number of moving
parts, due to this there is less wear and hence less friction.
(ii) Higher range even at high magnification is possible as the scale moves past
the index.
(iii) The scale can be made to move past a datum line and without having any
parallax errors.
(iv) They are used to magnify parts of very small size and of complex
configuration such as intricate grooves, radii or steps.
Disadvantages:
(i) The accuracy of measurement is limited to 0.001 mm
(ii) They have their own built in illuminating device which tends to heat the
instrument.
(iii) Electrical supply is required.
(iv)Eyepiece type instrument may cause strain on the operator.
(v)Projection type instruments occupy large space and they are expensive.
(vi) When the scale is projected on a screen, then it is essential to take the
instrument to a dark room in order to take the readings easily.