Epithermal deposition
Simmons et al. 2005, SEG 100th anniversary volume
General introduction
Epithermal: Range of pressures and temperatures that develop much larger subaerial (i.e. shallow) and
hydrothermal systems
Characteristics Qz +/-Cal +/-adularia +/-illite CHEHCK Qz +alunite +/- pyrophyllite +/-
(proximal alteration (low Sulphidation system) dickite +/- kaolinite
assemblage) (high Sulphidation system)
Metals association Au-Ag, Ag-Au, Ag-Pb-Zn Au +/- Ag +/- Cu
Metal bearing minerals Electrum, acanthite, silver sulfo salts and Native gold and electrum, with
tellurides, minor galena, sphalerite, galena and variable Py, Cu-sulfides (enargite),
chalcopyrite sulfosalts, sphalerite and tellurides
Structural textures Banded crustiform-colloform, lattice tex. Vuggy quartz
Tectonic setting Volcanic arcs including intra-arc, back-arcs and post DIFFERENT???
collisional rift setting
Geodynamic drivers Convergence, subduction DIFFEFERNT???
Typical crustal depth <1.5 km depth DIFFERENT???
Source of metals Calc-alkaline and alkaline magmatism
Metal fluids Reduced, sulphide Oxidised, sulphate
Medial-distal alteration Regional propylitic, around deposits clay, Concentric zones of alteration
mineralogy carbonate, zeolite around the deposit+in roots, illite-
General diagram for Epithermal deposits
• Specific conditions need
to combine to deposit
metals, not all will have
this. Some deposits are
related to pulses of
deeply derived metal
solution in the epi
environment (e.g.
simmons, 1991) or others
related to shallow
fluctuating permeability
that governs fluid flow
and boiling (e.g.
Saunders, 1994)
(Simmons et al. 2005)
•S
Hedenquist et al. 2000
Metal transport
• How is the metal transported in the system and therefore how does this influence the
deposition?
• What is the difference with the New Zealand gyser types?
• <300 C subariel hydrothermal system, For Qz+Cal+adularia: fluid inclusions (actual ref find out)
<5wt NaCl for Au-Ag, 10-20 wt% NaCl for Ag-Pb-Zn, Isotope data indicate deep circulating
meteoric water with nil-small magmatic input Simmons et al 2005
• Qz+alunite,etc fluid inclusions indicate 5-10 wt NaCl, but maybe as high as 30wt%, stable
isotopes indicate mostly from magmatic fluids, with minor to moderate meteoric water
(Simmons et al. 2005)
• Au is soluble with Cl- and sulfide (HS-) ligands, in reduced, near neutral pH (Robb, 2005)
• High metal solubility, favourable T, P and host rock conditions along vert+hori flow paths of km
are needed, Simmons et al. 2005
Low sulfidation
• Hotsprings and geysers, fluids equilibrated from the host rock, high meteoric
component and some mixing of magmatic fluid, associated with waning
stage of magmatism or removed from main magmatic, fluid near neutral
and low salinities (WHY?), but likely boiled near to depositional site focus .
• One location where high and low sulfidation systems form near to each
other is in Kyushu, south island Japan + also at Lepanto
• Precipitation is linked to two processes, boiling and fluid mixing, cause H2S
loss to the vapour, destabilizes Au(HS)-2 certain equation mixing of oxidized
meteoric water also helps precipitate gold
• Narrow interval for mineralization, indicate more a boiling relation??
EVIDENCE?, boiling more, fluid mixing second……. (Robb, 2005)
Fluid transport
• Origin for Qz-cal, is from deep
circulation of meteoric water
with 10-0% magmatic addition
with water rock interaction
PROOF???
• Fluid in equilibrium with
propylitic alteration
• K-mica and K-feldspar buffer
pH
• Iron bearing phase buffers the
oxidation state and sulphides
reflect natre of the parent
magma
Simmons et al. 2005
Fluid compositions • An increase in salinities derived
from boiling and/or mixing, 2-3
or even *10 from original
• Higher salinities than this could
be related to more of a
magmatic input or maybe
evaporities(Simmons et al.
2005)
Simmons et al. 2005
Simmons et al. 2005
Metal transport (simmons et al. 2005)
• Au+Ag transported by bisulphide complexes whereas base metals by
chloride complexes
• Metals contents have been determined from direct sampling e.g.
Brown and Simmons, 2003 and from metal precipitation in surface
pipes
Au solubility
Au-Ag low Typical values Evidence References
sulphidation
Temperature 150-300°C Qz fluid Simmons et al.
inclusion 2005, Cooke and
Simmons, 2000
Depth 100 – 500 m (40 Qz fluid Cooke and
(pressure) – 400 bars) inclusion with Simmons, 2000,
below palaeo- assumptions Sherlock et al. 1995
watertable
Oxidation Reduced (-15 – 5 Qz fluid Cooke and
state (fO2) δ18O) inclusion Simmons, 2000
Sulfidation Low ( -13 – 18) Real world Einaudi et al. 2003
state (fS2) examples
pH Neutral (6.5 – 8) Real world Einaudi et al. 2003
examples
NaCl <5% Qz fluid Simmons et al. 2005
inclusion
In Robb, 2005, from Wood (1998)
P_T?
Metal precipitation
• Where on a deposit scale is the metal depositing?
• Pressure, fluid, or combo control?
• Ore grade normally terminates upwards i.e. most grade doesn't get
precipitated at surface (Simmons et al. 2005)
• Critical genetic factors are (1) interaction between magmatic and
meteoric water component and amount of water rock interactions during
ascent (2) at the shallow epithermal depths development of boiling
and/or mixing conditions create sharp physical and chemical gradients (3)
shallow levels, position of the water table, controls hydrostatic P-T
gradients controls at depth where deposits form (Simmons et al. 2005)
Ore precipitation
• Duration of ore formation is are short 100s K years at most
• Most influenctial agent is focused fluid flow, with combinaed boiling and mixing,
EVIDENCE, high paleopermeability, fluid-mineral equilibria, fluid inclusion and
mineralogical evidence (Simmons et al. 2005)
• Boiling causes a sharp loss in H2, H2S and CO2 that lowers precious and base metal
solubility + causes an increase in pH and oxidation, highly effective for Au and Ag
(simmons et al. 2005)
• Chemical arguments and fluid inclusion support importance of boiling + ores in
hydrothermal explosivebreccias (Cooke and Simmons, 2000 and Deyell et al. 2004)
• Mixing between fluids is another viable mechanism, supported by fluid inclusions,
stable isotope data and numerical simulations e.g. Plumlee, 1994)
• Favourbale fhydrological conditions are required for boiling whereas mixing requires
sustained interactions, which can be difficult….
• Ores associated with telluride bearing ores, in association with alkaline igneous rock,
can’t be explained by simple boiling+mixing, also include water-rock interaction and
condensation of magmatic gas (e.g. Cooke and McPhail, 2001
Ore precipitation
• Water table controls the hydrostatic pressure, therefore water table
variations alter the vertical position of deposits
• Steep environments can have the water table 100s m lower, plus help
induce fluid movements that promote mixing, not commonly
documented
• In ARCs the water variation is local to regional, and can change
rapidly, so causing the pressure drop, boiling and brecciation,
(Simmons et al 2005)
Chemistry of solution (Simmons et al. 2005)
• Proportion of magmatic-hydrothermal fluid, fluid rock interactions
influence the chemistry, control PH, oxidation and sulfidation states
(giggenbach, 1992a, 1997, Einaudi et al. 2003)
What does surrounding geology tell use
• Blocky vein textures
• Chalcedony textures i.e. low pressures
• Structural control, fluids focus in bit of high paleo permeability,
highest grades in steep veins + ore also in breccias, clastic rocks, and
disseminated in host rocks but at lower grade, but greater tonnage
(Simmon et al. 2005)
• Vuggy quartz veins, in high sulp system Simmons et al. 2005
Real world example, Taupo volcanic range,
New Zealand
• Operating system, if a rod (iron or graphite?) is put in the fumeroles
then after afew days Au+Ag can be scrapped off it. (pers. Comm.)
• Cooke and Simmons, 2000
Preservation
• Often limited because they are stripped away by erosion easily, so
most occur within the tertiary, though older deposits do occur
Fluid inclusions (High sulphidation)
• Acid nature of the fluid makes finding fluid inclusions difficult
(simmons et al. 2005)
• Qz-alunite, (fluid inclusion in Qz) 5-10% NaCI, 180-320 C (Sillitoe et
al. 2005, Mancano and Campbell, 1995)
• Can also do it on enargite, more direct evidence of ore depositing
solutions, have a look at mancano and campbell et al. 1995
• Fluid typically 1-3pH and oxidised, as fluid boils and CO2 and SO2
partition out, creates an even more acidic solution (i.e. 1 pH), able to
leach major elements from the host rock that creates the vuggy
nature and adv. Argillic alt. (robb, 2005)
Cooke and Simmons, 2000
Cooke and Simmons, 2000
