NUTRITION and

METABOLISM

(Carbohydrates, Lipids, Protein)

Carbohydrate Metabolism
• Most dietary carbohydrate is burned as fuel within a few hours of
absorption (glucose catabolism)

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O

• Purpose is to transfer energy from glucose to ATP
• Common pathway through which fats and amino acids are also
oxidized as fuel
Relationship of Glucose to ATP
Glucose Catabolism
• Occurs as a series of small steps to efficiently transfer energy to ATP
(some energy lost as heat)
• Three major pathways
• glycolysis (yields 2ATP)
• splits a glucose molecule into 2 pyruvic acid molecules
• anaerobic fermentation
• pyruvic acid reduced to lactic acid
• NADH oxidized to NAD+ so glycolysis can continue
• aerobic respiration (yields 34-36ATP)
• oxidizes pyruvic acid to CO2 and H2O
Overview of ATP Production
In
In cytosol
cytosol

In
In cytosol
cytosol

In
In mitochondrion
mitochondrion
 Lipids
• Average adult male is 15% fat; female 25% fat
• represents body’s stored energy
• hydrophobic, contains 2X energy/g, more compact storage form
• glucose and protein sparing effects (no protein will be utilized
for energy)
• fat-soluble vitamins (A,D,E,K) are absorbed with dietary fat
• ingest less than 20 g/day risks deficiency
• Diverse functions of lipids
• phospholipids & cholesterol are structural components of plasma
membranes & myelin
• cholesterol is precursor of steroids, bile salts & vitamin D
• fatty acids are precursors of prostaglandins & other eicosanoids
 Fat Requirements & Sources
• Should be less than 30% of daily calorie intake
• Most fatty acids can be synthesized by the body
• essential fatty acids are those that must be consumed
• linoleic and perhaps linolenic and arachidonic acids
• Saturated fats
• animal origin -- meat, egg yolks & dairy products
• Unsaturated fats
• found in nuts, seeds & most vegetable oils
• Cholesterol
• found in egg yolks, cream, shellfish, organ meats & other meats
 Cholesterol and Serum Lipoproteins
Lipids are transported in the blood as lipoproteins
• a core of cholesterol & triglycerides with a coating of proteins and
phospholipids
• coating soluble in plasma, allows cells to recognize & absorb them
Lipoproteins are categorized into 4 groups by their density: more protein
means higher density
• chylomicrons
• very low-density (VLDLs)
• low-density (LDLs)
• high-density (HDLs)
 Chylomicrons, VLDL, and LDL
Chylomicrons (dietary lipids) are formed in the absorptive cells of the
small intestine
• enter lymphatic system, then enter the blood
• capillary surface enzymes hydrolyze the triglycerides
• fatty acids and glycerol enter the fat cells to be resynthesized into
triglycerides for storage
• chylomicron remnant is degraded by liver
VLDLs, produced by the liver, transport lipids to the adipose tissue for
storage
• triglycerides are removed, they become LDLs containing mostly
cholesterol
• cells in need of cholesterol for membrane repair or steroid
synthesis absorb LDLs by endocytosis
HDL, LDL and Total Cholesterol
• Production and function
• liver produces an empty, collapsed protein shell
• travels through the blood picking up cholesterol
• when it returns to the liver, the cholesterol is removed and eliminated in the
bile as cholesterol or bile acids
• Desirable to maintain high levels of HDL since it indicates cholesterol is being
removed from the arteries
• Desirable to maintain a low LDL concentration
• signifies high rate of cholesterol deposition in arteries
• smoking, saturated fats, coffee and stress  LDLs
• Desirable to maintain total cholesterol concentration of < 200 mg/dL
• most cholesterol is synthesized, but dietary restriction may lower blood
cholesterol levels
• vigorous exercise lowers blood cholesterol
 Lipoprotein Processing
Relationships between the chylomicron, HDL and VLDL/LDL pathways depend
upon the actions of the adipocytes and the liver
Lipids
• Triglycerides are stored in adipocytes
• constant turnover of molecules every 3 weeks
• released into blood, transported & either oxidized or redeposited in
other fat cells
• Lipogenesis = synthesizing fat from other sources
• amino acids & sugars used to make fatty acids and glycerol
• Lipolysis = breaking down fat for fuel
• glycerol is converted to PGAL & enters glycolysis
• fatty acids are broken down 2 carbons at a time to produce
acetyl-CoA (beta oxidation)
Lipogenesis and Lipolysis Pathways
Ketogenesis
• Fatty acids are catabolized in the mitochondrial matrix by
beta-oxidation--the resulting acetyl group may enter citric
acid cycle as acetyl-CoA
• Excess acetyl groups can be metabolized by liver during
ketogenesis -- the products are called ketone bodies
• if body rapidly oxidizing fats, ketones build up leading to
ketoacidosis
• Some cells can use acetoacetic acid for their principle fuel
(cardiac and renal cortex cells)
Dietary Sources
• Animal proteins (meat, eggs and dairy) closely match
human proteins in amino acid composition
• provide complete protein
• To obtain a complete protein, plant sources must be
combined in the right proportions
• beans and rice are a complementary choice
Proteins
• The amino acid pool = dietary amino acids plus 100 g of
tissue protein broken down each day into free amino acids
• Amino acids may be used to synthesize new proteins
• As fuel -- first must be deaminated (removal of NH2)--what
remains is converted to pyruvic acid, acetyl-CoA or part of
citric acid cycle
• during shortage of amino acids, the reverse occurs for protein
synthesis
• the NH2 become ammonia (NH3) which is toxic & which the liver
converts to urea (excreted in urine)
Pathways of Amino Acid Metabolism
Urea Synthesis
• Liver converts
ammonia (NH3) to
urea which is removed
from the blood by the
kidneys
Absorptive
•
State
Lasts about 4 hours during and after a meal
• time of nutrient absorption & use for energy needs
• Carbohydrates
• blood glucose is available to all cells for ATP synthesis
• excess is converted by liver to glycogen or fat
• Fats
• taken up by fat cells from chylomicrons in the blood
• primary energy substrate for liver, fat & muscle cells
• Amino acids
• most pass through the liver & go onto other cells
• in liver cells, may be used for protein synthesis, used for fuel for
ATP synthesis or used for fatty acid synthesis