Solutions
• Using a solution of the correct concentration is of the greatest
importance in attaining accurate clinical results in the
laboratory.
• Solutions are used as reagents in the clinical lab to obtain
patient results (concentration of an analyte).
– Ex. Biuret reagent + serum sample total protein concentration
• Solutions consists of 2 parts:
– Solute
solute
– Solvent solvent
solution
Solutions
• Are homogeneous mixtures.
• If both the solute and solvent are equal in volume, the term solute is assigned to
either component.
• Concentration of a solution = the amount of solute in a given volume of solvent.
• Solution concentration can be expressed in different ways:
– Mass/Volume solutions = g /100mL, g /dL, %
+
– Volume/Volume solutions = mL / 100mL, mL /dL, %
+
– Molarity solutions = M moles /L
Mass vs. Weight
• What’s the difference?
– Mass = the amount of matter in an object
– Weight = force of gravity acting on the object
• Force of gravity is location dependent.
– Force of gravity is less at higher altitudes geographical
variation of weight depending where you are located.
• Mass of an object remains constant
regardless of location.
chemical analysis is based on mass!
Mass
• Mass of an object is readily determined by comparison with a
known mass!
• Since gravity affects both known and unknown mass the same
– a fair comparison of mass can be obtained using a balance.
Unknown
mass
1g
known weights
Known mass
Balances
• Devices used to measure mass.
• Provide a quantitative analysis.
• Function by mechanical or electronic means
• Some solutions – require more accurately measured
solutes 2 g vs a 2.3681 g, therefore the type of
balance used – is dependent upon the solution being
prepared.
Classification of Balances: based on
Sensitivity
• Rough Balances – sensitive to 0.01g
– Examples: spring, beam, top loading, top loading
electronic
• Analytical Balances – sensitive to 0.0001g
– Examples: two pan, constant load and electronic
Rough Balance: Beam Balance – single,
double or triple
Triple Beam
• Function – when the beam
pointer is in the horizontal position,
pan
3 beams
the mass (weight) on either
side is equal and the pointer
points to zero.
• Metal weights called riders
move along the beams.
riders
• Sensitivity – 0.01g
• Must zero the riders and
calibrate to use.
Different Types of Analytical Balances
(Manual)
2 Pan Constant Load (1 Pan)
Different Types of Analytical Balances
(Manual)
2 Pan Constant Load (1 Pan)
I will not ask you ever to draw or label these diagram!
2 Pan Analytical Balance
additional
beam known
weights
solute
knife edge
pointer
pan pan
scale
• Technique – direct comparison or addition type
weighing
How a 2 Pan Analytical Balance is used to measure
mass.
additional
known
weights
solute
2g
How a 2 Pan Analytical Balance is used to measure
mass.
additional
known
weights
solute
2g
Constant Load (1 Pan)
Analytical Balance
beam
removable
Weights knife edge
(each weight = 1 gram) pointer scale counter
weight
solute pan
• Technique – substitution weighing
How a Constant Load (1 Pan)
Analytical Balance is used to measure mass.
solute
How a Constant Load (1 Pan)
Analytical Balance is used to measure mass.
solute
Electronic Balances
• Do not directly measure measure mass; they measure the force (weight)
that acts downward on the balance pan.
• Most are electromagnetic balances
and so measure weight using a
electromagnet.
• The electromagnetic (servomotor)
generates a force to counter the
weight of the mass being measured.
• The electrical current required to generate this force is proportional to the
weight and so can be used with appropriate calibration, to calculate mass.
• Mass is then displayed on the screen.
Electronic Rough Balance
Electronic Top Loader
• Single pan.
• Easy to use.
• Has a tare bar/button.
• Sensitivity – 0.01g
• Self calibrating
Weighing boats
Electronic Analytical Balance
Calibrating a Balance
• Before weighing anything on a balance with a
level indicator, one must check that it is
properly calibrated.
– Level indicator – when calibrated properly, the
bubble must be in the black circle
The Science Behind Balance Calibration!
Left Adjustment Right Adjustment
Foot Foot
– Rotate clockwise – Rotate clockwise
• Bubble moves • Bubble moves
– Rotate counter-clockwise – Rotate counter-clockwise
• Bubble moves • Bubble moves
1 2 3
* When adjustment feet are located at the front of the balance
Electronic Analytical Balance
• Single pan.
• Easy to use.
• Has a tare bar.
• Sensitivity – 0.0001g
• Must be calibrated
(leveled).
Definitions Associated with Balances
• Accuracy – closeness to the true value
• Sensitivity – ability to measure small
differences
• Capacity – max load that can be weighed
• Tare – mechanism that allows the balance to
zero itself
• Weigh boat – container used to contain a
chemical
Balances
General Rules for Errors Encountered When
Positioning: Using:
• On a rigid heavy • Not calibrating correctly
countertop • Forgetting to tare after
• Convenient height adding the weigh boat
• Low traffic area • Foreign material
• Low air current area present on the pan
• Human error (reading
and recording the mass)
