Introduction to well completion
(Part.VI)
Formation damage
(Part.VI) -Table of contents
1 Introduction
3
2 The main causes of skin damage
4
3 Classification of Formation Damage
5
4 The role of fluid invasion on formation damage
7
5 Drilling, Completion and Workover Damage
8
6 Formation Damage Associated With Fluid Filtrate 9
7 Émulsion blocks 10
8 Water Blocks 11
9 Capillary Pressure 12
10 Effective Permeability 14
11 Relative Permeability 15
12 Understanding the skin damage 16
13 Detection of Formation Damage 23
13.1 Productivity Index 24
13.2 Pressure Draw Down and PBU Tests 25
13.3 PBU test plot 26
13.4 Flow efficiency
28
VI.2
Introduction
“Formation damage” is the main reason of low
productivity or injectivity in oil, water and gas wells.
This damage is often expressed as "skin" or "zone"
damage, which results when the original permeability of
the producing formation is reduced.
The net result of such damage is a decrease in the flow
capacity of the well.
Formation damage is caused by many factors and can
occur as the formation is drilled, or at any time during
the life of the well
VI.3
The main causes of skin damage are:-
1. Solids Invasion
2. Wettability Changes
3. Perforation Damage
4. Chemical Precipitation (compatibility)
5. Emulsion Blocks
6. Water Blocks
7. Bacteria by Products
8. Clay Swelling and Dispersion
9. Organic Deposition
10. Scale Deposition
VI.4
Classification of Formation Damage
Shallow Damage
Commonly occurs during the drilling of new wells and workover
operations.
The invasion of drilling mud and other solids into the formation
creates a cylinder of reduced permeability around the wellbore.
This reduces the flow rate of fluids into the borehole .
A tough, impermeable filter cake forms on the face of the borehole,
consisting mainly of the solid particles from drilling fluids.
Some of these particles may even penetrate into the formation,
plugging the pores and fractures of the system.
The depth of penetration is difficult to determine, though it is
generally agreed that the solids penetrate no more than a few
inches.
VI.5
Moderate to Deep Damage
The filtration or water loss of drilling or completion fluids
will penetrate further into the formation.
The depth of filtrate penetration is commonly one or two
feet, but may go up to as deep as seven or eight feet in
some cases.
The volume of leak-off is dependent upon various factors,
such as:
The contact time of the drilling/completion fluid with the
formation
The properties of the drilling/completion fluid
The characteristics of the formation
Pressure differentials
The formation thickness
VI.6
The role of fluid invasion on
formation damage
This form of damage can be induced by interactions
between the in-situ fluids and the invading fluids.
Formation clay swelling and dispersion
Chemical precipitation (compatibility).
Emulsion block
Water block
Wettability reversals
Bacterial growth.
Scale deposition.
Organic deposition.
VI.7
Drilling, Completion and Workover Damage
Invasion of mud particles into the formation, which can
include clays, barite, other weighting agents, lost
circulation materials and cuttings.
Drilling and cement filtrate damage may result in polymer
plugging, scale formation, clay swelling, clay dispersion,
and oil-mud slugging.
The mud filter cake deposited on the exposed formation
face during drilling operations consists of solid drilling
mud particles and some drill cuttings.
This filter cake forms a cylindrical barrier in vertical wells
or a truncated cone in the case of horizontal wells, of
reduced permeability around the wellbore
VI.8
Formation Damage Associated With Fluid Filtrate
The liquid filtrate lost to a formation during well operations may be water
containing varying types and concentrations of positive and negative ions and
surfactants.
The liquid is forced into porous zones by differential pressure, displacing or
commingling with a portion of the virgin reservoir fluids.
This may create blockages due to one or more of several mechanisms that may
reduce the permeability or restrict the flow due to relative permeability or
viscosity effects.
Viscosity effects include emulsions, but also plugging by high viscosity treating
fluids which for some reason do not "break", or is not sufficiently diluted to
readily return to the wellbore under the influence of the available differential
pressure
Increased water saturation causes water blocking, or reduced permeability to oil
and gas.
Liquid filtrate may create a viscous emulsion with the virgin reservoir oil or
water may tend to oil-wet the formation rock, reducing the relative permeability
to oil.
VI.9
Emulsion blocks
An emulsion is defined as a
system that consists of a liquid
dispersed in another immiscible
liquid, usually in droplets of
larger than colloidal size.
Stabilisers must collect at the
interface between the fluids to Oil In Water Water In Oil
keep the emulsion from
Thick Thin
breaking.
Viscous Less Viscous
The most significant stabilisers
are fine particles of clay or other
materials, asphaltene, and
surfactants. Invisible Skin
In extreme cases, emulsions
can in fact kill a well. 0il (Interface)
The reduction in productivity
caused by emulsion is directly Water
related to the viscosity increase
created by the emulsion
VI.10
Water Blocks
Water blocks often accompany an increase in water
saturation in low to medium permeability reservoirs.
A water block is defined as a decrease in a formations
relative permeability to oil due to high capillary
pressures resulting from the interfacial tension between
water and oil.
When the permeability is in excess of 200 md water
blocks seldom, exist.
To better understand the phenomena, a description of
capillary pressure is important.
VI.11
Capillary Pressure
When two immiscible fluids are in contact, a clearly defined interface exists
between them.
The molecules near the interface are unevenly attracted, and this creates
what is known as interfacial tension.
If the interface is curved, the pressure on the concave side is higher than
the pressure on the convex side.
The difference between the two pressures is known as capillary pressure
The capillary pressures may run to hundreds of pounds per square inch.
The pressure drop during production may not be high enough to drive
filtrate out of these pore spaces, especially in the immediate vicinity of the
well bore
The water block mechanism can cause permanent impairment, or even
complete shut-off in highly depleted reservoirs.
VI.12
Laplace capillary pressure equation
1 1 Water
pc = pe - pw = ( + )
r1 r2
Sand Grain
Water
r1 x
Where,
Oil
Pc =Capillary pressure (absolute units) r2
=Interfacial tension
r1 and r2 Principal radii of curvature at any point on
the interface where the pressures in the oil and
water are pe and pw respectively.
Water Entrapment in
water wet reservoir
VI.13
Effective Permeability
When two immiscible fluids such as oil
and water are flowing through a porous
media, each fluid has its own effective
permeability. K K
The effective permeability's are directly Absolute
Permeability
related to the saturation of each fluid.
Effective Water Permeability Kw
Effective Oil Permeability Ko
Two points on the saturation axis are
known Swc the irreducible water
saturation, and Sw = 1.
Water will not flow when the water
saturation is at Swc and kw = 0.
When Sw = 1, then So = 0 and kw = k, the
absolute permeability. Swc 1-Sor
If Sw = 0, then So = 1 and ko = k. 0 0
0 1.0
When the oil saturation decreases to Sor Water Saturation Sw
the residual oil saturation, there will be
no oil flow and ko = 0
VI.14
Relative Permeability
It is easier to describe the relationship
between effective permeability's and
saturation with a term called “Relative
Permeability”. 1.0 1.0
Relative permeability plots as shown
can be generated by normalising the
K rw
values for “Effective Permeability”
K or
which is done by dividing the
“Effective Permeability” values by the
Relative Water Permeability
Relative Oil Permeability
“Absolute Permeability” for each fluid.
The true significance of these curves
is realised when one considers the K'ro
following. K'rw
An increase in water saturation from
the residual connate saturation (Swc)
of 25% to Sw = 0.5 the reduction in Swc 1-Sor
relative oil permeability can be
reduced to 25% of the end-point 0 0
permeability 1.0
Water Saturation Sw
VI.15
Understanding the skin damage
For a wellbore, that has a radius (rw) and a
formation radius (re). If the thickness of the
formation is (h), then the flow situation is described
by the following form of Darcy's Law for radial flow:
3
q q 1.127x 10- k dp
A = area of flow perpendicular to wellbore, ft2 v= = =
Q = flow rate ‑ STB/day (Stock tank barrels/day)
A 2rh dr
K = permeability ‑ md
H = formation thickness ‑ feet -3
= Viscosity ‑ centipoise 7.08 x 10 kh ( pe - pw )
q=
Pe = pressure at outer radius ‑ psi ln ( r e / r w )
Pr = pressure at wellbore ‑ psi
Re = outer radius ‑ feet
Rw = wellbore radius ‑ feet q ln ( r e / r w )
Ln = natural logarithm pe - pw = -3
= Formation volume factor - reservoir bbl/STB
7.08x10 k h
VI.16
Radial Fluid Flow (no damage)
k h
re rw
Pe Pw
VI.17
Understanding the skin damage
If a damage zone exists
Damaged Zone
from the wellbore out to a
radius (r1), the total
pressure drop is that
across both the damaged k k1 h
k k1
and undamaged zones.
re rw r1
Pe Pw P1
( p e - p w ) = ( p e - p1 ) + ( p1 - p w )
VI.18
Understanding the skin damage
Damaged Zone
k k1 k k1
h
re rw r1
Pe Pw P1
q ln ( r e / r w ) q ln ( r e / r 1 ) q ln ( r 1 / r w )
-3
= -3
+ -3
7.08x 10 k avg h 7.08x 10 kh 7.08x 10 k 1 h
ln ( r e / r w ) ln ( r e / r 1 ) ln ( r 1 / r w )
= +
k avg k k1
VI.19
Understanding the skin damage
Van Everdingen and Hurst introduced the
q
idea of a “skin factor” after noticing that
for a given flow rate, the bottom hole
flowing pressure measured, was less than
the calculated theoretical value P skin = - 3 S
This pressure drop from a damaged or
invaded zone close to the wellbore, is
7.08x10 kh
represented by the skin factor (S) and has
kh p skin
been defined by van Everdingen as
shown on the right:
The skin factor in wells can vary from +1
s
. q
to +10 or even higher.
Skin factor (s) is dimensionless. 1412
VI.20
Understanding the skin damage
Darcy's equation for -3
7.08x10 kh( p e - p w )
radial flow with the q =
pressure drop due to re
skin factor becomes:
( ln + S)
rw
Or
re
q( ln + S)
rw
kh = -3
7.08x10 ( p e - p w )
VI.21
Understanding the skin damage
This graph shows that if the region in the vicinity of the wellbore is damaged, a
major reduction in productivity occurs. For example, if the permeability out to four
feet is reduced to one tenth of the original formation permeability during drilling
and completion, well productivity could be reduced to less than one-fourth of the
original productivity.
1.00
7 INCH
0.90 WELLBORE
0.80
PI (DAMAGED) / PI (UNDAMAGED)
kd / ku = 0.50
0.70
0.60
0.50 kd / ku = 0.25
0.40
0.30
660 FT DRAINAGE
kd / ku = 0.10
RADIUS (40 ACRE
0.20 DAMAGED
SPACING
kd / ku = 0.05 ZONE kd
0.10
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
RADIUS OF DAMAGE (FEET)
VI.22
Detection of Formation Damage
The existence of formation damage is usually
indicated by a loss of production or lower than
expected production from a given well.
There are many ways to detect and evaluate the
existence of near wellbore damage, three major
tools used for this purpose are:
1. Productivity index.
2. Pressure draw down and build-up tests.
3. Flow efficiency
VI.23
1. Productivity Index
One of the common q
methods of evaluating
formation damage is the
PI =
productivity index of a well.
( pe - p w )
If the productivity index of a q=flow rate ‑ STB/day
given well is much lower pe=static reservoir pressure at outer radius, psi
than that of surrounding pw=wellbore bottom hole flowing pressure, psi
wells completed in the same
zone, it is indicative of Refer to darcy’s eqn for radial flow:-
formation damage 3
7.08 x 10 - kh ( pe - p w )
q =
Productivity index is defined ln ( r e / r w )
as the volumetric flow rate 3
divided by the pressure 7.08x 10 - k h
PI =
draw down at the wellbore. [ ln ( r e / r w )]
If damage exists it will be This eqn can be solved to get
reflected in the calculated kh:- q [ ln ( r e / r w )]
flow capacity, kh. kh = 3
7.08x 10 - ( pe - p w )
VI.24
2. Pressure Draw Down and PBU Tests
To determine the amount of damage by a
pressure draw down and build-up tests.
Pressures are measured at the formation
162.6 q
while the well is flowed for a given flow time
(tp). m=
Pressures are again recorded at the same
place after the well is shut in for a time (t).
kh
These pressures are then plotted on semilog
graph paper with the pressure on the y‑axis Solving above equation for the
and log [tp + t)/t] on the x-axis. flow capacity, kh, results in:
A straight line normally results if the test was
of long enough duration.
162.6 q
The slope of this straight line is labelled “m”
as shown kh =
This kh is the undamaged flow capacity of
the formation away from the wellbore
m
The flow capacity of the formation away from
the wellbore should normally be higher than
the damaged flow capacity near the wellbore
VI.25
Pressure Build-up Plot
Pressure draw down and build-up tests
are normally run with a pressure gauge to 2,000
SLOPE (M) = 1910 -1500
the bottom of the well. 1,900
= 410 psi/cycle
Flow times and rates are noted, and the 1,800
pressures are recorded. 1,700
Once this information is obtained, the
1,600
pressures are tabulated opposite the
flowing time and shut‑in time. 1,500
These data points are then plotted as 1,400
Pressure, psi
shown on similog paper. 1,300
The slope is the "m", psi per log-cycle. 1,200
With this slope, m, and the skin factor, 1,100
pressures, etc., the well flow efficiency
may be calculated. 1,000
This is the most direct measure of 900
formation damage. 800
If the flow efficiency is much less than 700
unity (one), then the well has been 600
damaged 1 10
T + t / t
VI.26
2. Pressure Draw Down and PBU Tests - continued
The skin factor can be Draw-down:
calculated as follows: pi - p1hr k
s = 1.151( - log + 3.23)
m ct r 2
w
Build up:
p1hr - pwfs k
s = 1.151( - log + 3.23)
m ct r 2
w
VI.27
Flow Efficiency
Flow Efficiency (FE) = Ideal draw down/ Actual draw down
FE = Pe – Pwf – pskin/ (Pe – Pwf)
pskin = 0.87ms
9ß S
p skin = -3
(7.08 x 10 kh)
Griffin and Zaki introduced the concept
of damage-ratio (D.R), which in effect is
essentially the reciprocal of the well
completion efficiency as defined above
1
D. R. =
FE
VI.28
