High Energy Physics

Text: D. Griffiths: Introduction to Elementary Particles

John Wily & Sons (1987)
 
Reference:
C H Oh  
F. Halzen and A.D. Martin: Quarks & Leptons John-Wiley & Sons
(1984)
 
D.H. Perkins: Introduction to High Energy Physics
(4th Edition) Cambridge University Press (2000)
Physics Department  
Fayyazuddin & Riazuddin: A Modern Introduction to Particle Physics
(2nd edition) World Scientific Publishing
(2000)
General Reading:
(1) Brian Greene: The Elegant Universe (1999), QC794.6 Str. Gr
(2) M Veltman: Facts and Mysteries in Elementary Particle Physics (2003)
(3) Leo Lederman: The God Particle:If the Universe is the Answer, What is the
question, Boston: Houghton Mifflin (1993), [Link].L

Websites:
Update of the Particle Listings available on the Web
PDG Berkeley website: [Link]
 
The Berkeley website gives access to MIRROR sites in:
Brazil, CERN, Italy, Japan, Russia, and the United Kingdom.
 
Also see the Particle Adventure at: [Link]

[Link] (Leo Lederman)

[Link]
 Contents
§1 Introduction
§1.1 Introduction
§1.2 Particles
§1.3 Basic Interactions (forces)
  §1.4 Theoretical Framework
§1.4.1 Quantum Field Theories
§1.4.2 Feynman Diagram
§1.5 Decays and Conservation Laws
§1.6 Unification
 
 
 Contents

§2 Relativistic Kinematics
§2.1 Lorentz Transformations
§2.2 4-Vectors and Tensors
§2.3 Lab and CM Frames. Conserved Quantities
and Invariants
§2.4 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions
§2.5 Examples
§3 Symmetries
Contents

§3.1 Symmetries, Groups, and Conservation Laws

§3.2 Review of Angular Momentum. Clebsch-
Gordan Coefficients
§3.3 Isospin and Flavour Symmetries
§3.4 Parity
§3.5 Charge Conjugation
§3.6 CP Violation
§3.7 Time Reversal
Contents

§4 Decays and Scattering

 
§4.1 Lifetimes and Cross Sections
 
§4.2 The Fermi Golden Rule
 
§4.2.1 Golden Rule for Decays
 
§4.2.2 Golden Rule for Scattering
 Contents
§5 Quantum Electrodynamics
§5.1 Relativistic Equations of Motion. The Dirac
Equation
§5.2 Solutions to The Dirac Equation
§5.3 Bilinear Covariants
§5.4 The Photon
§5.5 The Feynman Rules for QED
§5.6 Examples
§5.7 Casimir’s Trick and The Trace Theorems
§5.8 Cross Sections
 
§6 Introduction to Gauge Theories
1.1 Introduction

Elementary Particles = Basic constituents of matter Not 

Particles are pointlike
To break matter into its smallest pieces, need high energy
 Elementary particle physics = high energy physics

Present energy achieved  1 TeV  1000 GeV 1012 eV (Fermilab)

 LHC (2007) proton beams 7 TeV + 7 TeV = 14 TeV
Theoretical discussion on the unification of basic forces has
reached the Planck energy scale
1/ 2
   c  5
   10 gm  1019
GeV  10 28
eV
 GN 
Close to the energy scale at which the universe is created.
 1.2 Particles
Leptons: Particles do not participate
in strong interaction.

Hadrons(strongly interacting particles)

Baryons: Half-integral spin particles
(fermions) involve in all basic
Q Le L L interactions, st (strong), wk (weak), em

e -1 1 0 0 (electromagnetic)

ve 0 1 0 0 p , n,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  , 
    

 -1 0 1 0 Mesons: integer spin particles (bosons)

v 0 0 1 0 involve in all basic interactions st, wk,
em.
 -1 0 0 1   ,  ,  , k  , k  , ,
v 0 0 0 1 Baryons are made from three quarks
q,q, q
Electron pointlike up to Mesons are made from quark-antiquark
10-15 cm = 10-2 fm q, q
Three generations of quarks
 
 
Q U D C S T B
u 2/3 1 0 0 0 0 0
d -1/3 0 -1 0 0 0 0
c 2/3 0 0 1 0 0 0
s -1/3 0 0 0 -1 0 0
t 2/3 0 0 0 0 1 0
b -1/3 0 0 0 0 0 -1

each quark has a nonabelian charge, called colour (source

of strong interaction); there are three different colours.
Baryons and Mesons are bound states of quarks.
e.g.
u u
proton = antiproton = u u
d d

u u
Pion   Pion   
d d

u
Kaon k  
Kaon k   u
s s
c
J /  Gauge field particles (force field)
c
Photon  electromagnetic interaction
Graviton gravitation
Gluons g strong interaction
Intermediate
Vector bosons W Z weak interaction

Mass: mW   82GeV / c , mZ  92Gev / C 2

2
1.3 Basic Interactions (forces)

Type of force: Gravitational Weak Electro-magnetic Strong

Range: infinite 10-16cm infinite 10-13cm
Strength
relative to
strong force at
10-38 10-13 10-2 1
a distance
10-13 cm

Decay time for

a typical small 10-10s 10-20s 10-23s
mass hadron:
Mediator: Graviton W+,W-,Z0 Photon  gluon
Mass of the 82 GeV/c2
0 0 0
mediator: 92 GeV/c2

Theories: Strong interaction Quantum chromodynamics

QCD
em interaction Quantum electrodynamics
QED
Weak interaction Weinberg – Salam
model (Flavour dynamics)
Gravitation Quantum gravity (?)
Einstein’s general relativity
1.4 Theoretical Framework
1.4.1 Quantum field theories

To every elementary particle, we associate a field operator

  x  , x 0  ct , x  ( x1 , x 2 , x3 ) ,   x  acts on state vectors of a
~
Hilbert space. The field operator   x  obeys equation of
motion. For free particles, equations of motion are known.
Usually can obtain equation of motion from action S

S   d 4x ℒ ℒ  Lagrangian density.
F o r p a r tic le s in in te r a c tio n , in te r a c tio n te r m s a r e u s u a lly d e r iv e d fr o m a
s y m m e tr y p r in c ip le , c a lle d p r in c ip le o f lo c a l g a u g e in v a r ia n c e .

T w o ty p e s o f in te r a c tio n te r m s :

 ( x ) ( x )  ( x ) Y ukaw a
 ( x )   ( x ) A  ( x ) G a u g e f ie ld t h e o r ie s

In q u a n tu m th e o r y , e x p ( -iS ) d e te r m in e s th e p h y s ic s .
1.4.2 Feynman diagram

1. A Feynman diagram consists of external lines (lines which enter or

leave the diagram) and internal lines (lines start and end in the diagram).
External lines represent physical particles (observable). Internal lines
represent virtual particles ( A virtual particle is just like a physical particle
except its mass can assume any value i.e. not on mass-shell). Vertices
represent interactions. 4-momentum p  must be conserved at each vertex;
in fact all conservation laws.
e.g.

Blue lines = external

Red lines = internal

= vertex

2. The diagram is symbolic, the lines do not represent particle trajectories.

3. Each Feynman diagram stands for a complex number (scattering
amplitude) which can be computed from Feynman’s rules. The sum total of all
Feynman diagrams with the same external lines represents a physical
process.

There are infinitely many Feynman diagrams for a particular physical process.
Each vertex in the diagram introduces a factor  (coupling constant).
1
For QED  e  , thus higher order diagrams with many vertices will
137
contribute less to the process.

e.g. Electron-electron scattering e e  e  e 

e  e e
time e

e
e  e
e

1st diagram 2nd diagram

The 2nd diagram contributes less than the first diagram.

4. At each vertex, the energy- momentum p  must be conserved.

e   e    violates conservation of
e.g. e  e   violates
 
momentum 3-momentum
energy conservation

time e 
time

e
e e
In cm frame, the e  is initially at rest.
The energy of the emitted electron
and photon is In cm frame total momentum of e 
and e (positron) = 0, but total
( mec 2   )  mec 2 (energy of e  at momentum after annihilation =
rest) momentum of  (photon)  0.
1 v
 , 
1  2 c
5. Each virtual particle (internal line) is represented by the “propagator” (a function describes
the propagation of the virtual particle).The virtual particles are responsible for the description of
force fields through which interacting particles affect on another.

(a) QED
q 1
2

Coupling constant    e

4 c 137
e
0

q  1.602 x 10 Coul,   1.055 x 10 Joule-Sec

e
19 34

1
c  2.998 x 10 m/s,
8
 8.9875 x 10 9

4 0

All em phenomena are ultimately reducible to following elementary process (primitive vertex)

1
L    D  F v F  v  m
time
4
1
e       ie  A  F v F  v  m
 e e  4

e Interactionvertex A  jA

and Fv Av vA
All em processes can be described by patching together two or more of the primitive
vertices.
 
Note: The primitive QED vertex

e


by itself does not represent a possible physical process as it violates the conservation
of energy.
Some examples of electromagnetic interaction

1. Møller Scattering e  e   e  e 

time e e

joining up
two vertices
e e
2. Bhabha Scattering e  e   e  e 

e e
e gives up a virtual photon which is
absorbed by the position e 
e e

Particle line running backward in time (as indicated by the arrow) is interpreted as the
corresponding antiparticle running forward.
e e

e e  annihilate to produce a virtual photon 

which then pair – produces e  e 
e e

3. Pair Production   e  e 
e e

 
4. Pair Annihilation e  e   

5
.C
om
p
t
onS
c
a
tt
er
i
ng
e
e 

 e


e
(b) QCD
 
Only quarks and gluons involve basic vertices: Quark-gluon vertex qqg

g
q

More exactly

q(r )

g (b, r )
q (b)
Gluon vertices
Interaction between two proton
 
Nucleons (proton or neutron) interact by exchange of  mesons.

e.g. u
u
d u u d
u

u
u d
d u u u

3 2 1
1 2 3

First u quark of LH p interacts with d and then propagates to the RH p to become the
u of the RH p and also interacts with the second u of the RH p.
 
Similarly the first u of RH p interacts with the d and goes to become a u of the LH p
and also interacts with the second u of the LH p.

p p
  (uu  d d ) / 2


 
p p
The coupling constant s decreases as interaction energy
increases (short-range)

s
 seff 
   dielectric constant

known as asymptotic freedom

 
s increases as interaction energy decreases (long range)

known as infrared slavery.

( c ) Weak Interaction

Leptons: primitive vertices connect members of the same generation

Lepton number is separately conserved for each Lepton generation,
that is, Le, L , L separately conserved.

Charged vertex Neutral vertex

ve l

W Z
e l
e.g.

v 
v
e e

   e   v   e v  e   v  e 
W ve
 Z e
v
Quarks
Flavour not conserved in weak interaction
Charged Vertex.

q2/3 u

W W
1/ 3
q d

S
emile
pto
nicp
ro
ces 
s dv u


u 

W v
d

Not observable  quark confinement

 But can be observed in

D
eca
yof
v
 v

W

d
u



andneutrondecay npe ve

Text
p

ve
e

W

u d d
n

Two quarks u, d in neutron n not participating are called spectator quarks.

Hadronic decays
u
d

W
d u

Text
observed in p 
u
u
  (udd ) d
  p    W

u d d


Neutral vertex e.g.

q v
u ob served in
v  p  v  p
Z Z u
q v
Decays of quark by weak interaction can involve members of different generations
 
e.g. a strange quark can decay into an u-quark


u
d

u
W

The weak force not just couples members of the same

generation

u c t

d  or s or b
     

but couples also members of different generations

u c t  d '   Vud Vus Vub  d 

 ' 
d'  or  s'  or  b'  where
 s    Vcd Vcs Vcb 
  s 
     
 b '   Vtd Vts Vtb   b 
 
Kobayashi –Maskawa matrix

 Vud Vus Vub   0.9747  0.9759, 0.218  0.224, 0.001  0.007 

V Vcs Vcb    0.218  0.224, 0.9734  0.9752, 0.030  0.058 
 cd
V
 td Vts Vtb   0.003  0.019, 0.029  0.058, 0.9983  0.9996 

Vud = coupling of u to d
Vus = coupling of u to s
(d) wk and em couplings of W and Z

Weak couplings
W W
W W Z

Z
W W Z
W
W

Couplings involve photon 

W W W
 



W Z
W W

Summary q q q'
l  l'

q l W,Z W,Z
q l q
strong em
Weak
1.5 Decay & Conservation Laws
 
(a) Every particle decays into lighter particles unless prevented by some
      

conservation law

Stable particles : e- (lightest lepton),

 
p (lightest baryon, conservation of baryon number), neutrinos, photons (massless particles)
 

(b) Most particles exhibit several different decay modes

e.g.

Branching ratio

K+     v 64%
    21%
      6%
   ve    5%
Each unstable species has a characteristic mean life time 

e.g.

   2.2 x106 sec

    2.6 x108 s
    8.3 x1017 s

Note: I  I 0e  t /  ,  = time taken for I to decrease from I 0 to I 0e 1

1 1
t1/2 = time taken for I to reduce to I o , I o  I o e  (t1/ 2 /  )  In 2  (t1/ 2 /  )
2 2
( c ) Three Fundamental Decays:

Strong decay e.g.    p      1023 s

em decay e.g.      1016 s
wk decay e.g.    n  e   v e  ~ 1013 s
Neutron decay n  p  e   v e (  15min)
(d  u  e  v e )

(d) Kinematic Effect: the larger the mass difference between the original particle and
the decay products, the more rapidly the decay occurs.
This is also known as phase space factor. It accounts for the enormous range of 
in wk decays.
CONSERVATION LAWS
(i) Spacetime symmetry
Homogeneity of space time  laws of physics are invariant under time and
space translations 

C
o
ns
er
vat
i
o n
ofsp
at
i
a lm
o
me
nt
ump
,Co
ns
er
vat
i
o n
ofe
ne
rg
yE/
C 
po

Isotropy of space time  laws of physics are invariant under rotations in space time.
In particular laws of physics are invariant under rotations in space 
Conservation of angular momentum.
Invariant under rotation in space and time (Lorentz transformation), Lorentz Symmetry

Discrete Symmetry
Space inversion  conservation of parity
Time inversion T, no quantum number associated.
T represented by anti-unitary operator.

T   T 1 (unitary)
T (c1  1  c2  2 )  c1*T  1  c2*T  2 (antilinear)
and c1* is the complex conjugate of ci , i =1, 2
(ii) Internal Symmetry

(1) U(1) symmetry

A physical state of a physical system is represented by a vector  in Hilbert
space up to a phase vector (assume normalization)

i.e. if  represents a physical state

then ei  represents the same physical state, =constant

e i1

, ei 2 ... form a group, an Abelian group U(1)

Conservations of electric charge, baryon number and lepton number are due to the
U(1) phase invariance.

F
ort
hee
l
e c
t
ri
c c
har
geca
se
,c
analsolet
be de
pend
ento
nsp
ac
et
ime
poi
n t
u
x,n
ame
l
y  
(x
)a n
don
ege
t
s l
o c
algau
gei
n v
ar
ian
ce
(2) The QCD Lagrangian is invariant under local SU(3) transformations. i.e. QCD
has a local SU(3) symmetry. An SU(3) transformation is represented by a unitary 3
x 3 matrix whose determinant is one.

SU(3) = special unitary group in three dimensions

(3) Approximate conservation of favour. Quark favour is conserved at a strong or

electromagnetic vertex, but not at a weak vertex.

QZI (Okubo, Zweig and Iizuka ) rule

Some strong decays are suppressed

e.g.

J /  cc bound state of charmed quarks has anomalously long lifetime

~10-20sec
(Strong decay ~10-23sec)
 Meson ( ss ) , I G ( J pc )  0 (1  )
mass = 1020 MeV, Full width   4 MeV , (  )

Decay modes
K+K- 50%
K l0 K s0 34%
 13%
   o 2%
 1%

Clearly,  meson decays more often into K  K 

  K  K mass of ( K   K  )  990 MeV/c2
than into 3 ' s

      0 mass of (       0 )  415MeV / c 2
   
k
k u u d d d d
u u
s s u
g g

s s
g g g
 s s
s s


OZI rule:
If the diagram can be cut in two by slicing only gluon lines (and not cutting open any
external lines), the process is suppressed.
Qualitatively OZI rule is related to the asymptotic freedom.
In an OZI suppressed diagram the gluons have higher energy than those in the OZI -
allowed diagram.

J / I G ( J p )  0 (1 )

mass = 3100 MeV/c2, =0.063 MeV

Decay modes

ee 6.0%
 6.0%
hadrons 88%

J /  3 OZI - suppressed

J /  D   D  ( D   D ) charmed nonstrange Mesons
mass of D  1869 MeV/c2
Kinematically forbidden.
1.6 Unification
Strong coupling constant  s decreases at short distances (very high
energy collisions)
Weak coupling  also decreases but at a slower rate.
w
Electromagnetic coupling constant  e increases as energy increases

[Note: the relative weakness of the weak force is due to the large mass of W, Z;
its intrinsic strength is greater than that of the em force.]

From the present functional form of the running coupling constants, s, w, and e
converge at around 1015 GeV.

s At 1019 m,
w 1
s 
1 10
40 1
e w 
27
1015 GeV E 1
e 
129
g T a Aa
 Our Universe according to Wilkison Microwave
Anistropy Probe (WMAP) 2003

• Age: 13.7 billion years

• Shape: Flat
• Age when first light appeared:200 Million years
• Contents: 4% ordinary matter, 23% dark matter, nature
unknown; 73% dark energy, nature unknown
• Hubble constant (expansion rate):71km/sec/megaparsec
 To see a World in a Grain of Sand
And a Heaven in A Wild Flower
Hold Infinity in the palm of your hand
And Eternity in an hour

W. Blake (1757-
1827)