MODULE - 3

POLYMERS & POWDER METALLURGY

 Introduction to Polymers used for additive
manufacturing

Polyamide (Nylon 6)

• Being a solid material, polyamide powder has the attractive feature of being
self-supporting for the generated product sections.
• This makes support structure redundant. Polyamide allows the production of
fully functional prototypes or end-use parts with high mechanical and thermal
resistance.
• Polyamide parts have excellent long-term stability and are resistant against
most chemicals.
• Polyamides account for the vast majority of 3D prints made on SLS systems.
Advantages of Polyamide
•Tough, strong, impact resistance
• low coefficient of friction
• Abrasion resistance
• High temperature resistance
• good solvent resistance

Disadvantages of Polyamide
• Subject to attack by strong acids and oxidising agents
• Requires UV stabilization
• High shrinkage in moleded sections
• Dissolved by phenols
 Phenol formaldehyde resins

Phenol formaldehyde resins are synthetic polymers obtained by the reaction

of phenol or substituted phenol with formaldehyde. Used as the basis for
Bakelite. They have been widely used for the production of moulded
products including billiard balls, laboratory countertops, and as coatings and
adhesives.

Phenol formaldehyde resins (PFs) are condensation polymers and are

obtained by condensing phenol with formaldehyde in the presence of an
acidic or alkaline catalyst. They were first prepared by Backeland , an
American Chemist who gave them the name as Bakelite.
 Polyesters

Polyester (aka Terylene) is a category of polymers which contains the ester

functional group in their main chain.

Polyester is currently defined as:

“Long chain polymers chemically composed of at least 85% by weight of an
ester and a dihydric alcohol and terephthalic acid”.

The name “polyester” refers to the linkage of several monomers (esters) within
the fiber. Although there are many polyesters, the term "polyester" as a
specific material most commonly refers the Polyethylene Terephthalate(PET) .
Classification Of Polymers

•By Origin

•By Monomer

•By Thermal Response

•By Mode Of Formation

•By Structure

•By Application & Physical Properties

By Origin
• Natural Polymers (E.g. Silk, Wool, Natural rubber, Cellulose, Starch, Proteins etc.)
• Semisynthetic Polymers (E.g. Cellulose acetate, Cellulose nitrate)
• Synthetic Polymers (E.g. Nylon, Terylene, Polyethylene, Polystyrene, Synthetic rubber,
Nylon, PVC, Bakelite, Teflon etc.)

By Monomer (A monomer is a molecule that is able to bond in long chains )

• Homo Polymers
A polymer consist of identical monomers is called homo polymer. E.g. Polyethylene,
PVC, Polypropylene, Nylon 6
• Co Polymers
A polymer consist of monomers of different chemical structure are called copolymers.
E.g. Nylon 6,6
By Thermal Response
• Thermoplastic Polymers (E.g. PE, PVC, PP)
• Thermosetting Polymers (E.g. Bakelite)

By Mode of Formation
• Addition Polymers (E.g. Teflon, Polyethylene, Polypropylene, PVC)
• Condensation Polymers (E.g. Polyamides(Nylons), Polyesters(PET))

By Structure
•Linear Polymers (E.g. HDPE, Nylons)
•Branched Polymers(E.g. LDPE, LLDPE)
•Cross-linked Polymer(E.g. Bakelite, Melamine, Formaldehyde resins, Vulcanized
rubber)
By Applications & Physical Properties
• Fibers
If polymer is drawn into long filament like materiel whose length is at least 100
times it’s diameter, are said to be converted into fiber. E.g. Nylon, Terylene.
 
• Plastics
Polymer is shaped into hard and tough utility articles by application of heat and
pressure, is known as plastics.E.g. Polystyrene, PVC, PMMA
 
• Resins
Polymers which are used as adhesives, sealants etc., in a liquid form are
described as liquid resins. E.g. Epoxy adhesives and polysulphides sealants.
Concept of functionality

what functionality means.

The ability to perform a task or function; that set of functions that something is able or

equipped to perform.

Functionality in polymer chemistry

According to IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemists), the functionality

of a monomer is defined as the number of bonds that a monomer's repeating unit

forms in a polymer with other monomers.

Polymer Processing: Methods of spinning for additive
manufacturing

Wet spinning :
This is the oldest, most complex and also the most expensive method of man-made

yarn manufacture. This type of spinning is applied to polymers which do not melt and

dissolve only in non-volatile or thermal unstable solvents.

• non-volatile solvent is used to convert the raw material into a solution

Wet spinning is used in the production of aramid, Lyocell, PVC, Vinyon (PVA), viscose
rayon, spandex, acrylic and modacrylic fibers.
Dry spinning is used for polymers that need to be dissolved in a solvent. Solvent spinning
(dry spinning and wet spinning) are used by 30% of the fibers.
 Types of Polymer Processing : Sheet
Thermoforming

PVC Plastic. ...

PET Plastic. ...
PETG Plastic.
• Products made by sheet thermoforming include individual
containers for jelly or cream, vials, cups, tubs, trays and lids.
• Transparent products, such as contoured windows, skylights
and cockpit canopies, are often made by this method.
 Blow Molding

Liquid foodstuffs are increasingly packaged in narrow neck plastic

PET bottles.
Compression Molding

plastic granules material

Injection Molding
 Powder Metallurgy (PM)

•PM parts can be mass produced to net shape or near net shape, eliminating

or reducing the need for subsequent machining

•PM process wastes very little material of starting powders are converted to

product

•PM parts can be made with a specified level of porosity, to produce porous

metal parts Examples: filters, oil-impregnated bearings and gears

•Certain metals that are difficult to fabricate by other methods can be

shaped by PM Tungsten filaments for lamp bulbs are made by PM

 Trends of Powder Metallurgy Technology
Structural parts
Structural parts make up a large portion of PM products. Their main ingredient is iron
alloys. Engineers have sought to improve their properties as they apply them
successively to different products: home appliances, Automation equipment,
motorcycles, agricultural machinery, and automobile parts.
Tribological Parts
These parts are strongly related to abrasion and lubrication. The field has grown as
original PM alloy compositions and material microstructure are being actively utilized

Magnetic Parts
In recent years, to support ICT equipment that rapidly continues to become faster,
use higher frequencies, become smaller and denser, and save more energy
Next-Generation High-Performance Parts
We are focusing on micronization as the next-generation technology for the fields of
information, home appliances and the life sciences
Powder Production Techniques

1. Mechanical methods of powder production:

•Chopping or Cutting
•Abrasion methods
•Machining methods
•Milling
2. Chemical methods of powder production:
•Reduction of oxides
•Precipitation from solutions
•Thermal decomposition of compounds
•Electro- chemical methods
3. Physical methods of powder production:
•Water atomization
•Gas atomization
•Special atomization methods
Air, nitrogen, argon
or helium are used,
depending on the Gas Atomization
requirements
determined by the
metal to be
atomized.

atomized powders is in the range of

20-300 μm.
 Water Atomization
Molten metal
production of iron
base powders
tundish

The impact from the high

pressure stream of water
leads to disintegration of
the flowing metal

for low and high alloy steels,

including stainless steel
 centrifugal atomization
The basis of centrifugal
atomization is the ejection of
molten metal from a rapidly
spinning container, plate or
disc.
 Advantages of atomization

•Freedom to alloy

•All particles have the same uniform composition

•Control of particle shape, size and structure

•High purity

•Lower capital cost

 Characterization Techniques:
Chemical Composition and Structure
Particle Size and Shape
Scanning Electron Microscopy
Interparticle Friction & Flow Characteristics
Compressionability
Powder Structure
Chemical Characterization
Chemical Composition and Structure

• The levels of impurity elements in metal powders can be very significant to both the
processing and properties of the final product
•For example, in reduced iron powder silicon is present as impurity in the form of
silica, which is insoluble in most acids.
•The microstructure of the crystalline powder has a significant influence on the
behavior of powder during compaction and sintering and on the properties of the
final product
Particle Size and Shape

The shape of the powder is characterized by the dimensionality of the particle and its
contour surface. Most powder particles are three-dimensional in nature and they may
be considered as being somewhat equiaxed
Scanning Electron Microscopy
 Interparticle Friction & Flow Characteristics

Friction between particles affects ability of a powder to flow readily and pack tightly
 Compressionability

Compressibility is a measure to which a powder will compress or densify upon

application of external pressure.

•inherent hardness of the concerned metal or alloy,

•particle shape,
•Internal porosity,
•Particle size distribution,
•presence of nonmetallics,
•addition of alloying elements or solid lubricants.
Powder Structure

1- spherical (condensed size, lead, atomization)

2- rounded or droplets (atomized copper, zinc, aluminum, tin)
3-angular (cast iron, stainless steel obtained by intergranular corrosion)
4- dendritic (electrolytic silver, iron powder)
5-Flakes (ball milled copper, Aluminum, and stamped metals)
6-porous (reduction of oxides)
7-irregular (atomization, reduction, chemical composition)
Chemical Characterization
XRF: (X-ray fluorescence) is a non-destructive analytical technique used to
determine the elemental composition of materials. XRF analyzers determine the
chemistry of a sample by measuring the fluorescent (or secondary) X-ray emitted
from a sample when it is excited by a primary X-ray source.

XRD: A diffractometer is a measuring instrument for analyzing the structure of a

material from the scattering pattern produced when a beam of radiation or particles
(such as X-rays or neutrons) interacts with it.
 Importance of Microstructure Study

Microstructures determine the mechanical, physical, and chemical properties

of materials. For example, the strength and hardness of materials are
determined by the number of phases and their grain sizes. The electrical and
magnetic properties and also the chemical behaviour (corrosion) are
determined by the grain size and defects (vacancies, dislocations, grain
boundaries, etc.) present in the material.

Microstructure Controlled by:

Alloying additions
Deformation processing
Phase transformations
 Powder Shaping

Particle Packing Modifications

Packing Factor = Bulk Density/ True Density
• Typical values for loose powders range between 0.5 & 0.7 microns.
• Powders of various sizes give higher packing factor.
•Packing can be increased by vibrating the powders, causing them to settle more tightly
•Pressure applied during compaction greatly increases packing of powders through
rearrangement and deformation of particles.
Lubricants & Binders
A lubricant for powder metallurgy is used for reducing frictional forces among
powder particles, and between a compact and mold, particularly at the time of the
powder compaction and releasing of the compact from the mold

Lubricant is known to significantly affect the flowability of the mixture consisting of iron
powder and lubricant. It also affects the mold releasability, or the ejection force
required to eject the compact of the powder mixture from a mold after compaction.

Binders are used to increase green strength of the powder compacts. Binder are used to
promote the interfacial bonding to increase green strength
Powder Compaction
 Isostatic pressing

Isostatic pressing is a powder metallurgy

(PM) forming process that applies equal
pressure in all directions on a powder
compact thus achieving maximum
uniformity of density and microstructure
without the geometrical limitations of
uniaxial pressing.
Isostatic pressing is performed "cold" or "hot." Cold isostatic pressing (CIP) is
used to compact green parts at ambient temperatures, while hot isostatic
pressing (HIP) is used to fully consolidate parts at elevated temperatures by
solid-state diffusion. HIP can also be used to eliminate residual porosity from a
sintered PM part.

Hot isostatic pressing involves applying pressure and temperature

simultaneously so that molding and sintering of the powder takes place at the
same time in the die.
Injection Moulding
 Powder Extrusion
cold extrusion of metal powder Hot extrusion of metal powder

binder (up to 50%) such as

paraffin waxes, starches, “canning” the powders in a mild steel can
benzol, resins or shellac
Slip Casting
Tape Casting