Chapter 1:

Digital Systems
 Discrete Data
● Examples:
♦ 26 letters of the alphabet (A, B … etc)
♦ 10 decimal digits (0, 1, 2 … etc) Analog Discrete

● Combine together
♦ Words are made of letters (University … etc)
♦ Numbers are made of digits (4241 … etc)

 Binary System
● Only ‘0’ and ‘1’ digits
● Can be easily implemented in electronic circuits

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 Decimal Number System
 Base (also called radix) = 10
● 10 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }
 Digit Position 2 1 0 -1 -2

● Integer & fraction 5 1 2 7 4

 Digit Weight 100 10 1 0.1 0.01
● Weight = (Base) Position
 Magnitude
500 10 2 0.7 0.04
● Sum of “Digit x Weight”
d2*B2+d1*B1+d0*B0+d-1*B-1+d-2*B-2
 Formal Notation
(512.74)10
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 Octal Number System
 Base = 8
● 8 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 }
 Weights 64 8 1 1/8 1/64

● Weight = (Base) Position 5 1 2 7 4

2 1 0 -1 -2
 Magnitude
5 *82+1 *81+2 *80+7 *8-1+4 *8-2
● Sum of “Digit x Weight”
=(330.9375)10
 Formal Notation
(512.74)8

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 Binary Number System
 Base = 2
● 2 digits { 0, 1 }, called binary digits or “bits”

 Weights 4 2 1 1/2 1/4

● Weight = (Base) Position 1 0 1 0 1

2 1 0 -1 -2
 Magnitude
1 *22+0 *21+1 *20+0 *2-1+1 *2-2
● Sum of “Bit x Weight”
=(5.25)10
 Formal Notation
(101.01)2
 Groups of bits 4 bits = Nibble
1011
8 bits = Byte
11000101
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 Hexadecimal Number System
 Base = 16
● 16 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F }
 Weights 256 16 1 1/16 1/256

● Weight = (Base) Position 1 E 5 7 A

2 1 0 -1 -2
 Magnitude
1 *162+14 *161+5 *160+7 *16-1+10 *16-2
● Sum of “Digit x Weight”
=(485.4765625)10
 Formal Notation
(1E5.7A)16

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The Power of 2

n 2n n 2n
0 20=1 8 28=256
1 21=2 9 29=512
2 22=4 10 210=1024 Kilo

3 23=8 11 211=2048
4 24=16 12 212=4096
5 25=32 20 220=1M Mega

6 26=64 30 230=1G Giga

7 27=128 40 240=1T Tera

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 Addition
 Decimal Addition

1 1 Carry
5 5
+ 5 5

1 1 0
= Ten ≥ Base
 Subtract a Base

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 Binary Addition
 Column Addition

1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 = 61
+ 1 0 1 1 1 = 23

1 0 1 0 1 0 0 = 84

≥ (2)10

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 Binary Subtraction
 Borrow a “Base” when needed

1 2 = (10)2
0 2 2 0 0 2
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 = 77
− 1 0 1 1 1 = 23

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 = 54

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 Binary Multiplication
 Bit by bit

1 0 1 1 1
x 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1

1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0

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Number Base Conversions

Evaluate
Magnitude
Octal
(Base 8)

Evaluate
Magnitude
Decimal Binary
(Base 10) (Base 2)

Hexadecimal
(Base 16)
Evaluate
Magnitude 13 / 45
 Decimal (Integer) to Binary Conversion
 Divide the number by the ‘Base’ (=2)
 Take the remainder (either 0 or 1) as a coefficient
 Take the quotient and repeat the division

Example: (13)10
Quotient Remainder Coefficient
13/ 2 = 6 1 a0 = 1
6 /2= 3 0 a1 = 0
3 /2= 1 1 a2 = 1
1 /2= 0 1 a3 = 1
Answer: (13)10 = (a3 a2 a1 a0)2 = (1101)2

MSB LSB
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 Decimal (Fraction) to Binary Conversion
 Multiply the number by the ‘Base’ (=2)
 Take the integer (either 0 or 1) as a coefficient
 Take the resultant fraction and repeat the division

Example: (0.625)10
Integer Fraction Coefficient
0.625 * 2 = 1 . 25 a-1 = 1
0.25 * 2 = 0 . 5 a-2 = 0
0.5 *2= 1 . 0 a-3 = 1
Answer: (0.625)10 = (0.a-1 a-2 a-3)2 = (0.101)2

MSB LSB
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 Decimal to Octal Conversion
Example: (175)10
Quotient Remainder Coefficient
175 / 8 = 21 7 a0 = 7
21 / 8 = 2 5 a1 = 5
2 /8= 0 2 a2 = 2
Answer: (175)10 = (a2 a1 a0)8 = (257)8

Example: (0.3125)10
Integer Fraction Coefficient
0.3125 * 8 = 2 . 5 a-1 = 2
0.5 *8= 4 . 0 a-2 = 4
Answer: (0.3125)10 = (0.a-1 a-2 a-3)8 = (0.24)8

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 Binary − Octal Conversion
 8 = 23 Octal Binary
 Each group of 3 bits represents 0 000
an octal digit 1 001
2 010
Assume Zeros
Example: 3 011
( 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 )2 4 100
5 101
6 110
( 2 6 . 2 )8 7 111

Works both ways (Binary to Octal & Octal to Binary)

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 Binary − Hexadecimal Conversion
 16 = 24 Hex Binary
0 0000
 Each group of 4 bits represents 1
2
0001
0010
a hexadecimal digit 3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
Assume Zeros 6 0110
Example:
7 0111
8 1000
( 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 )2 9 1001
A 1010
B 1011
C 1100
D 1101
(1 6 . 4 )16 E 1110
F 1111
Works both ways (Binary to Hex & Hex to Binary)
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 Octal − Hexadecimal Conversion
 Convert to Binary as an intermediate step
Example:
( 2 6 . 2 )8

Assume Zeros Assume Zeros

( 0 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 0 )2

(1 6 . 4 )16

Works both ways (Octal to Hex & Hex to Octal)

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Decimal, Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal

Decimal Binary Octal Hex

00 0000 00 0
01 0001 01 1
02 0010 02 2
03 0011 03 3
04 0100 04 4
05 0101 05 5
06 0110 06 6
07 0111 07 7
08 1000 10 8
09 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F

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 Complements
 1’s Complement (Diminished Radix Complement)
● All ‘0’s become ‘1’s
● All ‘1’s become ‘0’s
Example (10110000)2
 (01001111)2
If you add a number and its 1’s complement …

10110000
+ 01001111
11111111
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 Complements
 2’s Complement (Radix Complement)
● Take 1’s complement then add 1
OR
● Toggle all bits to the left of the first ‘1’ from the right
Example:
Number: 10110000 10110000
1’s Comp.:
01001111
+ 1

01010000 01010000

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 Negative Numbers
 Computers Represent Information in ‘0’s and ‘1’s
● ‘+’ and ‘−’ signs have to be represented in ‘0’s and ‘1’s
 3 Systems
● Signed Magnitude
● 1’s Complement
● 2’s Complement
All three use the left-most bit to represent the sign:
♦ ‘0’  positive
♦ ‘1’  negative

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 Signed Magnitude Representation
 Magnitude is magnitude, does not change with sign
S Magnitude (Binary)
(+3)10  ( 0 0 1 1 )2
(−3)10  ( 1 0 1 1 )2
Sign Magnitude

 Can’t include the sign bit in ‘Addition’

0 0 1 1  (+3)10
+ 1 0 1 1  (−3)10

1 1 1 0  (−6)10
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 1’s Complement Representation
 Positive numbers are represented in “Binary”
0 Magnitude (Binary)
 Negative numbers are represented in “1’s Comp.”
1 Code (1’s Comp.)
(+3)10  (0 011)2
(−3)10  (1 100)2

 There are 2 representations for ‘0’

(+0)10  (0 000)2
(−0)10  (1 111)2
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 1’s Complement Range
 4-Bit Representation Decimal 1’s Comp.
+7 0111
4 +6 0110
2 = 16 Combinations
+5 0101
− 7 ≤ Number ≤ + 7 +4 0100
+3 0011
−23+1 ≤ Number ≤ +23 − 1 +2 0010
+1 0001
 n-Bit Representation +0 0000
−0 1111
n−1 n−1 −1 1110
−2 +1 ≤ Number ≤ +2 −1 −2 1101
−3 1100
−4 1011
−5 1010
−6 1001
−7 1000
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 2’s Complement Representation
 Positive numbers are represented in “Binary”
0 Magnitude (Binary)
 Negative numbers are represented in “2’s Comp.”
1 Code (2’s Comp.)
(+3)10  (0 011)2
(−3)10  (1 101)2

 There is 1 representation for ‘0’ 1’s Comp. 1111

(+0)10  (0 000)2 + 1
(−0)10  (0 000)2 1 0000
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 2’s Complement Range
 4-Bit Representation Decimal 2’s Comp.
+7 0111
4 +6 0110
2 = 16 Combinations
+5 0101
− 8 ≤ Number ≤ + 7 +4 0100
+3 0011
−23 ≤ Number ≤ + 23 − 1 +2 0010
+1 0001
 n-Bit Representation +0 0000
−1 1111
n−1 n−1 −2 1110
−2 ≤ Number ≤ + 2 −1 −3 1101
−4 1100
−5 1011
−6 1010
−7 1001
−8 1000
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 Number Representations
 4-Bit Example
Unsigned Signed
1’s Comp. 2’s Comp.
Binary Magnitude

Range 0 ≤ N ≤ 15 -7 ≤ N ≤ +7 -7 ≤ N ≤ +7 -8 ≤ N ≤ +7

0 0 0
Positive
Binary Binary Binary Binary

1 1 1
Negative X
Binary 1’s Comp. 2’s Comp.
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 Binary Subtraction Using 1’s Comp. Addition
 Change “Subtraction” to “Addition”
 If “Carry” = 1 (5)10 – (1)10 (5)10 – (6)10
then add it to the (+5)10 + (-6)10
(+5)10 + (-1)10
LSB, and the result
is positive 0101 0101
(in Binary) + 1110 + 1001
 If “Carry” = 0
1 0011 0 1110
then the result
+
is negative
(in 1’s Comp.) 0100 1110

+4 −1
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 Binary Subtraction Using 2’s Comp. Addition
 Change “Subtraction” to “Addition”
 If “Carry” = 1 (5)10 – (1)10 (5)10 – (6)10
ignore it, and the (+5)10 + (-6)10
(+5)10 + (-1)10
result is positive
(in Binary) 0101 0101
 If “Carry” = 0 + 1111 + 1010
then the result
1 0100 0 1111
is negative
(in 2’s Comp.) +4 −1

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 Binary Codes
 Group of n bits
● Up to 2n combinations
● Each combination represents an element of information
 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
Decimal BCD
● Each Decimal Digit is represented 0 0000
by 4 bits 1 0001
2 0010
● (0 – 9)  Valid combinations 3 0011
4 0100
● (10 – 15)  Invalid combinations 5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
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 BCD Addition
 One decimal digit + one decimal digit
● If the result is 1 decimal digit ( ≤ 9 ), then it is a simple
binary addition
5 0101
Example:
+ 3 + 0011
8 1000
● If the result is two decimal digits ( ≥ 10 ), then binary
addition gives invalid combinations
Example:
5 0101
+ 5 + 0101
0001 0000 10 1010 33 / 45
 BCD Addition
 If the binary result 5 0101
is greater than 9,
+ 5 + 0101
correct the result by
adding 6 10 1010
+ 0110
0001 0000
Multiple Decimal Digits

Two Decimal Digits

351

0011 0101 0001

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 Gray Code
 One bit changes from Decimal Gray Binary
one code to the next 00 0000 0000
code 01 0001 0001
02 0011 0010
 Different than Binary 03 0010 0011
04 0110 0100
05 0111 0101
06 0101 0110
07 0100 0111
08 1100 1000
09 1101 1001
10 1111 1010
11 1110 1011
12 1010 1100
13 1011 1101
14 1001 1110
15 1000 1111

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 ASCII Code

American Standard Code for Information Interchange

Info 7-bit Code
A 1000001
B 1000010
. .
. .
. .
Z 1011010

a 1100001
b 1100010
. .
. .
. .
z 1111010

@ 1000000
? 0111111
+ 0101011

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 Error Detecting Codes
 Parity
One bit added to a group of bits to make the total number
of ‘1’s (including the parity bit) even or odd

4-bit Example 7-bit Example

● Even 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

● Odd 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

 Good for checking single-bit errors

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 Binary Logic
 Operators
● NOT
If ‘x’ = 0 then NOT ‘x’ = 1
If ‘x’ = 1 then NOT ‘x’ = 0
● AND
If ‘x’ = 1 AND ‘y’ = 1then ‘z’ = 1
Otherwise ‘z’ = 0
● OR
If ‘x’ = 0 OR ‘y’ = 0 then ‘z’ = 0
Otherwise ‘z’ = 1
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 Binary Logic
 Truth Tables, Boolean Expressions, and Logic Gates

AND OR NOT
x y z x y z x z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

z=x•y=xy z=x+y z = x = x’

x z x z x z
y y
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 Logic Signals
 Binary ‘0’ is represented
by a “low” voltage
(range of voltages)
 Binary ‘1’ is represented
by a “high” voltage
(range of voltages)
 The “voltage ranges” guard
against noise

Example of binary signals

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Switching Circuits

AND OR

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 Homework
 Mano  Write your family name in
● Chapter 1 ASCII with odd parity
♦ 1-2  Decode the following ASCII
♦ 1-7 string (with MSB = parity):
♦ 1-9
11000011 01101111 11101101
♦ 1-10
11110000 11000000 01010000
♦ 1-11 01010011 01010101 11010100
♦ 1-16
Is the parity even or odd?
♦ 1-18
♦ 1-20
♦ 1-24(a)
♦ 1-29
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 Homework
 Mano
1-2 What is the exact number of bytes in a system that
contains (a) 32K byte, (b) 64M byte, and (c) 6.4G byte?
1-7 Express the following numbers in decimal: (10110.0101)2,
(16.5)16, and (26.24)8.
1-9 Convert the hexadecimal number 68BE to binary and
then from binary convert it to octal.
1-10 Convert the decimal number 345 to binary in two ways:
(a) convert directly to binary, (b) convert first to
hexadecimal, then from hexadecimal to binary. Which
method is faster?

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 Homework
1-11 Do the following conversion problems:
(a) Convert decimal 34.4375 to binary.
(b) Calculate the binary equivalent of 1/3 out to 8 places.
Then convert from binary to decimal. How close is the
result to 1/3?
(c) Convert the binary result in (b) into hexadecimal.
Then convert the result to decimal. Is the answer the
same?

1-16 Obtain the 1’s and 2’s complements of the following

binary numbers:
(a) 11101010 (b) 01111110 (c) 00000001 (d) 10000000
(e) 00000000
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 Homework
1-18 Perform subtraction on the following unsigned binary
numbers using the 2’s-complement of the subtrahend.
Where the result should be negative, 2’s complement it
and affix a minus sign.
(a) 11011 – 11001 (b) 110100 – 10101 (c) 1011 – 110000
(d) 101010 – 101011

1-20 Convert decimal +61 and +27 to binary using the signed-
2’s complement representation and enough digits to
accommodate the numbers. Then perform the binary
equivalent of (+27) + (– 61), (–27) + (+61) and
(–27) + (–61). Convert the answers back to decimal and
verify that they are correct.

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 Homework
1-24 Represent decimal number 6027 in (a) BCD

1-29 The following is a string of ASCII characters whose bit

patterns have been converted into hexadecimal for
compactness: 4A EF 68 6E 20 C4 EF E5. Of the 8
bits in each pair digit, the leftmost is a parity bit. The
remaining bits are the ASCII code.
(a) Convert to bit form and decode the ASCII
(b) Determine the parity used: odd or even.

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