CONTROLLED NUCLEAR FISSION
• In order to maintain a sustained controlled nuclear reaction, for every 2 or 3
neutrons released, only one must be allowed to strike the another uranium nucleus.
If this ratio is less than one, then the reaction will die out. And if the ratio is more
than one then the reaction is uncontrolled.
• Most of the reactors are controlled by means of control rods that are made up of a
strongly neutron absorbent material such as boron or cadmium.
• In addition to the need of capturing neutrons, the neutrons have too much kinetic
energy. These fast neutrons are slowed through the use of the moderator such as
heavy water and ordinary water. Some reactors use graphite as the moderator.
SPONTANEOUS NUCLEAR FISSION
• Spontaneous nuclear fission rate is the probability per second that a given atom will
fission spontaneously without any external intervention.
• Plutonium239 is considered to have very high fission rate compared to the
spontaneous fission rate of uranium 235 while designing nuclear weapons.
PHOTO FISSION:
Gamma photons from nuclear reaction are capable of fissioning a number of
heavy nuclides called photofission.
NUCLEAR SPALLATION:
Large number of nucleons like neutrons, protons and alpha particles evaporate
from excited nucleus with small residue as a product of fission. The products will
result spallation of direct fission.
NUCLEAR FUSION
• Nuclear fusion is the process of combining of fusing two lighter nuclei into a stable
and heavier nuclide.
• Large amount of energy is released because mass of the product nucleus is very less
when compared to mass of the two nuclei which are fussed.
• For eg, the sun uses nuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms into helium atoms. It gives
off heat and light and other radiation.
• Two types of hydrogen atoms like deuterium and tritium combine to make a helium
atom and an extra particle called a neutron.
• If the lighter nuclei are fused together , they will fuse with a yield of energy
because the mass of the combination will be less than the sum of the masses of the
individual nuclei.
• Proton – proton chain is the predominant fusion reaction scheme used by stars such
as the sun.
i) Two pairs of protons form to make two deuterium atoms.
ii) Each deuterium atom combines with a proton to form a helium 3 atom.
iii) Two helium 3 atoms combine to form berrylium 6 which is unstable.
iv) Beryllium 6 decays into two helium 4 atoms.
These reactions produces high energy particles (protons, electrons,
neutrinos, positrons) and radiation (light, gamma rays).
There are two ways to achieve the temperature and pressures necessary for
hydrogen fusion to take place i) Magnetic confinement.
ii)Inertial confinement
MAGNETIC CONFINEMENT
• Microwaves, electricity and neutral particle beams from accelerators heat a stream
of hydrogen gas.
• This heating turns the gas into plasma. This plasma gets squeezed by super-
conducting magnets, thereby allowing fusion to occur.
• The most efficent shape for the magnetically confined plasma is a donut shape.
INTERTIAL CONFINEMENT
• At the focal point inside the target chamber there will be a pea-sized pellet of
deuterium-tritium encased in a small, plastic cylinder.
• The heat and radiation will convert the pellet into plasma and compress it until
fusion occurs. The fusion reaction will be short-lived, about one millionth of a
second, but will yield 50 to 100 times more energy than is needed to initiate the
fusion reaction.
CHAIN REACTION
MULTIPLICATION FACTOR
Multiplication factor is also called as Reproduction factor. It is denoted by k.
Number of neutrons in any particular generation
k=----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Number of neutrons in the preceeding generation.
If k<1 then it is called as subcritical reaction.
If k=1 then it is called as critical region.
If k>1 then it is called as supercritical region.
Nuclear fuel cycle
URANIUM MINING
URANIUM MILLING
ENRICHMENT METHODS
• There are three enrichment process in large scale commercial use,
• i) Gaseous diffusion,
• ii) Gas centrifuge
• iii) Thermal diffusion.
•
GAS CENTRIFUGE
GASEOUS DIFFUSION
THERMAL DIFFUSION
URANIUM
ZIRCONIUM
