The Relational Calculus
(Based on Chapter 9 in Fundamentals of Database Systems by Elmasri and Navathe, Ed. 3)
Contents
Introduction to Relational Calculus Tuple Relational Calculus
Tuple Variables and Range Relations Formal Specification of Tuple Relational Calculus Queries Using the Existential Quantifier Transforming Universal and Existential Quantifiers Universal Quantifiers and Safe Expressions
Domain Relational Calculus
The Relational Calculus 2
Introduction to Relational Calculus
A formal language based on first-order predicate calculus. Many commercial relational languages based on some aspects of relational calculus, including SQL. QUEL, QBE(Chapter 9) closer to relational calculus than SQL
The Relational Calculus 3
Difference from relational algebra:
One declarative calculus expression specifies a retrieval query. A sequence of operations is used in relational algebra. Relational algebra more procedural. Relational calculus more declarative (less procedural). Expressive power of the two languages is identical.
The Relational Calculus 4
Relational Completeness:
A relational query language L is relationally complete if we can express in L any query that can be expressed in the relational calculus (or algebra) Most relational query languages are relationally complete. More expressive power is provided by operations such as aggregate functions, grouping, and ordering.
The Relational Calculus 5
Tuple Variable and Range Relations
The tuple relational calculus is based on specifying a number of tuple variables. A tuple variable ranges over the tuples of a particular relation. Such relation is called a range relation.
The Relational Calculus
A Form of Tuple Relational Calculus Query
A simple tuple relational calculus query is of the from {t | COND(t)}
t is a tuple variable COND(t) is a conditional expression involving t.
The result of such a query is set of all tuples t that satisfies COND(t).
The Relational Calculus 7
Example:
Find all employees whose salary is above $50000:
{ t | EMPLOYEE(t) and t.SALARY > 50000 } EMPLOYEE(t) specifies the range relation EMPLOYEE for the tuple variable t Each tuple t satisfying t.SALARY > 50000 is retrieved Retrieves the whole tuple t
The Relational Calculus 8
Example:
To retrieve only some attributes of t:
{ t.FNAME, t.LNAME | EMPLOYEE(t) and t.SALARY>50000 } T.FNAME, T.LNAME EMPLOYEE T T.SALARY > 50000
Similar to the SQL query:
SELECT FROM WHERE
The Relational Calculus
A Tuple Calculus Expression
Need to specific the following information For each tuple variable t, the range relation R of t. This value is specified by a condition of the form R(t). A condition to select particular combinations of tuples. A set of attributes to be retrieved, the requested attribute.
The Relational Calculus 10
Expressions of Tuple Relational Calculus
A general expression of tuple relational calculus is of the form
{(t1.A1, t2.A2, tn.An | COND(t1,t2, ,tn,tn+1,tn+2, ,tn+m)} Where t1.A1, t2.A2,tn.An are tuple variables, each Ai is an attribute of the relation on which ti ranges, and COND is a condition or formula
The Relational Calculus 11
Formulas of Tuple Relational Calculus
A formula is made up of predicate calculus atoms, which can be one of the following:
An atom of the form R(ti), where R is a relation name and ti is a tuple variable. An atom of the form ti.A op tj.B, where op is one of the comparison operators in the set {=,>,u,<,e,{}, ti and tj are tuple variables, A is an attribute of the relation on which ti ranges, and B is an attribute of the relation on which tj ranges.
The Relational Calculus 12
Formulas of Tuple Relational Calculus
A formula is made up of predicate calculus atoms, which can be one of the following:
An atom of the form ti.A op c or c op tj.B, where op is one of the comparison operators in the set {=,>,u,<,e,{}, ti and tj are tuple variables, A is an attribute of the relation on which ti ranges, and B is an attribute of the relation on which tj ranges, and c is a constant value.
The Relational Calculus
13
Truth Value
Each of the preceding atoms evaluates to ether TRUE or FALSE for a specific combination of tuples. This is called the truth value of an atom. In general, a tuple variable ranges over all possible tuples in the universe.
The Relational Calculus
14
Formula
Atoms connected via and, or and not. Every atom is a formula If F1 and F2 are formulas, so are :
(F1 and F2) (F1 or F2) not(F1) not(F2)
The Relational Calculus 15
The Existential and Universal Quantifiers
Universal quantifier()
Read for all Read their exists
Existential quantifiers()
The Relational Calculus
16
Free and Bound Tuple Variables
Informally, A tuple variable t is bound if it is quantified, mean that it appears in an (t) or (t) clause; otherwise, it is free.
The Relational Calculus
17
Free and Bound Tuple Variables
An occurrence of a tuple variable in a formula F that is an atom is free in F. An occurrence of a tuple variable t is free or bound in a formula made up of logical connectives (F1 and F2), (F1 or F2), not(F1), and not(F2) depending on whether it is free or bound in F1 or F2 (if it occur in either).
The Relational Calculus 18
Free and Bound Tuple Variables
All free occurrences of a tuple variable t in F are bound in a formula F of the form F = (t)(F) or F = (t)(F) . The tuple variable is bound to the quantifier specified in F.
The Relational Calculus
19
For example
F1 : d.DNAME=Research F2 : (t)(d.DNUMBER=t.DNO) F3 : (t)(d.MGRSSN=333445555)
d is free in F1, F2 and F3 t is bound to the quantifier in F2 t is bound to the quantifier in F3
The Relational Calculus
20
Formulas
Every atom is a formula. If F1 and F2 are formulas, then so are (F1 and F2), (F1 or F2), not(F1), and not(F2). If F is a formula, then so is (t)(F), where t is a tuple variable. If F is a formula, then so is (t)(F), where t is a tuple variable.
The Relational Calculus 21
Truth Value for Existential Quantifiers
The formula (t)(F) is TRUE if the formula F evaluates to TRUE for some (at least one) tuple assigned to free occurrences of t in F; otherwise (t)(F) is FALSE.
The Relational Calculus
22
Existential Quantifiers
called existential quantifier because (t)(F) is TRUE if there exists some tuple t that make F TURE.
The Relational Calculus
23
Truth Value for Universal Quantifiers
The formula (t)(F) is TRUE if the formula F evaluates to TRUE for every tuple (in the universe) assigned to free occurrences of t in F; otherwise (t)(F) is FALSE.
The Relational Calculus
24
Universal Quantifiers
called universal quantifier because every tuple in the universe of tuples must make F TRUE if (t)(F) is to be TRUE.
The Relational Calculus
25
Example Queries Using the Existential Quantifiers (1)
Query 1 :
Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work for the Research department.
The Relational Calculus
26
Example Queries Using the Existential Quantifiers (1)
Q1:
{ t.FNAME, t.LNAME, t.ADDRESS | EMPLOYEE(t) and ( d)(DEPARTMENT(d) and d.NAME=Research and d.DNUMBER=t.DNO) }
The Relational Calculus
27
Example Queries Using the Existential Quantifiers (1)
The only free tuple variables in a relational calculus expression should be those that appear to the left of the bar (|). Each free variable is bound successively to each tuple that satisfies the condition to the right of the bar (|). The bar (|) read as such that
The Relational Calculus
28
Example Queries Using the Existential Quantifiers (1)
EMPLOYEE(t), DEPARTMENT(d) specify range relations for t. The condition d.NAME=Research is selection condition.
(corresponds to SELECT in relational algebra)
The condition d.DNUMBER=t.DNO is a join condition.
(serves a similar purpose to EQUIJOIN in relational algebra)
The Relational Calculus 29
Example Queries Using the Existential Quantifiers (2)
Query 2
For every project located in Stafford, list the project number, the controlling department number, and the department manages last name, address, and birthdate.
The Relational Calculus
30
Example Queries Using the Existential Quantifiers (2)
Q2:
{p.PNUMBER, p. DNUM, m.LNAME, m.BDATE, m.ADDRESS | PROJECT(p) and EMPLOYEE(m) and PLOCATION='Stafford and (d)(DEPARTMENT(d) and p.DNUM=d.DNUMBER and d.MGRSSN=m.SSN) }
The Relational Calculus 31
Example Queries Using the Existential Quantifiers (8)
Query 8:
For each employee, retrieve the employee's name, and the name of his or her immediate supervisor.
The Relational Calculus
32
Example Queries Using the Existential Quantifiers (8)
Q8:
{e.FNAME, e.LNAME, s.FNAME,s.LNAME | EMPLOYEE(e) and EMPLOYEE(s) and e.SUPERSSN=s.SSN}
The Relational Calculus
33
Example Queries Using the Existential Quantifiers (3)
Query 3
Find the names of employees who work on some projects controlled by department number 5.
The Relational Calculus
34
Example Queries Using the Existential Quantifiers (3)
Q3:
{e.FNAME, e.LNAME | EMPLOYEE(e) and ((x)(w)(PROJECT(x) and WORKS_ON(w) and x.DNUM=5 and e.SSN=w.ESSN and p.PNO=x.PNUMBER)) }
The Relational Calculus 35
Example Queries Using the Existential Quantifiers (4)
Query 4
Make a list of project numbers for projects that involve an employee whose last name is Smith, either as a worker or a manager of the department that controls the project.
The Relational Calculus
36
Example Queries Using the Existential Quantifiers (4)
Q4:
{p.PNUMBER | PROJECT(p) and (((e)( w)(EMPLOYEE(e) and WORKS_ON(w) and p.PNUMBER=w.PNO and e.LNAME='Smith and w.ESSN=e.SSN )) or (( m)( d)(EMPLOYEE(m) and DEPARTMENT(d) and p.DNUM=d.DNUMBER and d.MGRSSN=m.SSN and m.LNAME='Smith')))}
The Relational Calculus 37
Example Queries Using the Existential Quantifiers (4)
In general, UNION in relational algebra corresponds to an or connective in relational calculus. INTERSECTION corresponds to an and connective.
The Relational Calculus
38
Transforming Universal and Existential Quantifiers
The not connective can be used to transform universal and existential quantifiers to equivalent formulas.
The Relational Calculus
39
Well-known transformations from mathematical logic.
( x) (P(x)) | (not x) (not(P(x))) ( x) (P(x)) | not ( x) (not(P(x)))
The Relational Calculus
40
Well-known transformations from mathematical logic.
The following is also true, where stands for implies:
( x) (P(x)) ( x) (P(x)) (not x) (P(x)) not ( x) (P(x)) not( x) (P(x)) (not x) (P(x))
The following is not true:
The Relational Calculus
41
Example Queries Using Universal Quantifiers (3)
Query 3
Find the names of employees who work on all the projects controlled by department number 5.
The Relational Calculus
42
Example Queries Using Universal Quantifiers (3)
Q3:
{e.FNAME, e.LNAME | EMPLOYEE(e) and ((x)(not(PROJECT(x)) or (not(x.DNUM=5) or ((w)(WORKS_ON(w) and e.SSN=w.ESSN and p.PNO=x.PNUMBER) )) ) }
The Relational Calculus
43
Example Queries Using Universal Quantifiers (3)
Q3 :
For every tuple x in the project relation with x.DUM = 5, there must exist a tuple w in WORK_ON such that w.ESSN=e.SSN and w.PNO=x.PNUMBER.
The Relational Calculus
44
Basic Components of Q3
Q3:
{e.FNAME, e.LNAME | EMPLOYEE(e) and F} F= ((x)(not(PROJECT(x)) or F1)) F1 = not(x.DNUM=5) or F2 F2 = ((w)(WORKS_ON(w) and e.SSN=w.ESSN and p.PNO=x.PNUMBER))
The Relational Calculus
45
Basic Components of Q3
Must exclude all tuples not of interest from the universal quantification by making the condition TRUE for all such tuples. Universally quantified variable x must evaluate to TRUE for every possible tuple in the universe.
The Relational Calculus 46
Basic Components of Q3
In F, not(PROJECT(x)) makes x TRUE for all tuples not in the relation of interest PROJECT.
F= ((x)(not(PROJECT(x)) or F1))
In F1, not(x.DNUM=5) makes x TRUE for those PROJECT tuples we are not interested in whose DNUM is not 5
F1 = not(x.DNUM=5) or F2
The Relational Calculus 47
Basic Components of Q3
F2 specifies the condition that must hold on all remaining tuples all PROJECT tuples controlled by department 5
F2 = ((w)(WORKS_ON(w) and e.SSN=w.ESSN and p.PNO=x.PNUMBER))
The Relational Calculus
48
Safe Expressions
A safe expression in relational calculus is one that is guaranteed to yield a finite number of tuples as its result; otherwise, the expression is called unsafe. Unsafe expression may yield infinite number of tuples, and the tuples may be different types.
The Relational Calculus 49
Safe Expressions
For example:
{t | not(EMPLOYEE(t))} is unsafe.
Yields all non-EMPLOYEE tuples in the universe.
The Relational Calculus
50
Universal Quantifiers and Safe Expressions
One must be careful when specifying universal quantification. Judicious to follow rules to ensure expression make sense. Otherwise, unsafe expressions may result.
The Relational Calculus
51
Safe Expressions
We discuss rules for safe expressions using the universal quantifier by looking at query Q3. Following the rules for Q3 discussed above guarantees safe expressions when using universal quantifiers. Using transformations from universal to existential quantifiers, can rephrase Q3 as Q3A
The Relational Calculus 52
Example of Transforming Universal and Existential Quantifiers
Q3A:
{e.FNAME, e.LNAME | EMPLOYEE(e) and (not ( x)(PROJECT(x) and (x.DNUM=5) and (not ( w)(WORKS_ON(w) and e.SSN=w.ESSN and p.PNO=x.PNUMBER)))) }
The Relational Calculus
53
Additional Examples (6)
Query 6:
Retrieve the names of employees who have no dependents.
The Relational Calculus
54
Example Queries Using the Existential Quantifiers (6)
Q6:
{e.FNAME, e.LNAME | EMPLOYEE(e) and (not(d)(DEPENDENT(d) and e.SSN=d.ESSN)) }
The Relational Calculus
55
Example Queries Using the Universal Quantifiers (6)
Q6:
{e.FNAME, e.LNAME | EMPLOYEE(e) and ((d)(not (DEPENDENT(d)) or not (e.SSN=d.ESSN))) }
The Relational Calculus
56
Additional Examples (7)
Query 7:
List the names of managers who have at least one dependent.
The Relational Calculus
57
Example Queries Using the Existential Quantifiers (7)
Q7:
{e.FNAME, e.LNAME | EMPLOYEE(e) and ((d)(p)(DEPARTMENT(d) and (DEPENDENT(p) and e.SSN=d.MGRSSN and p.ESSN=e.SSN)) }
The Relational Calculus
58
Quantifiers in SQL
The EXISTS function in SQL is similar to the existential quantifier of the relational calculus.
The Relational Calculus
59
Quantifiers in SQL
SELECT FROM WHERE EXISTS (SELECT FROM WHERE
* R AS X P(X))
The Relational Calculus
60
Quantifiers in SQL
SQL does not include a universal quantifier. Use of a negated existential quantifier not (x) by writing NOT EXISTS is how SQL supports universal quantification.
The Relational Calculus
61
