Adolescence

and
Adulthood
introduction
Development is a lifelong affair, which does not
stop when we reach adulthood. Try this thought
experiment. Whatever your current age, imagine
yourself ten years from now. Will your life have
progressed? Will you have attained any goals?
What state will your body be in, and how will you
feel about it? Where will you be living? Will your
cognitive and occupational skills have improved
and broadened, or started to slow down? Do you
anticipate changes in your financial status? Will
you have gained/retained/replaced a partner?
How will you adjust to new responsibilities (at
work, at home)? Will your leisure activities differ?
Will you have had children/seen existing children
grow up and leave home? Would you expect other
people to regard and treat you differently from the
ways they do now? What changes in the larger
world (technological, political, economic) might
affect you in a decade’s time?
If ten years ahead is an awesome prospect, imagine yourself 20, 30 or
more years from now and repeat the exercise.
Did you find this an easy or difficult task? Is your life course planned
and your intention to follow it unshakeable, or do you see it as open
to the decisions of others, or governed by pure
chance? Do you look forward to change (and ageing), or does the
prospect unnerve you?
It soon becomes clear when we contemplate our own futures that
change is inevitable. But to what extent is development in adulthood
due to intrinsic, fundamental changes in the organism, to
accumulating experiences in complex environments, or to social and
community pressures to adapt? Is change continuous and gradual, or
is it marked by major transitions? You will notice that these are
similar issues to those questions we
considered in chapter 9. In this chapter, we follow developments
beyond childhood, beginning with adolescence and then
moving into the phases of adulthood – early, middle and late.
Although there are many aspects to development during adolescence
and adulthood, and wide individual variation in circumstances and
achievements, the core issues, psychologically
speaking, continue to revolve around the themes covered in chapter
9. So, once again, we will follow each phase of development from
physical, cognitive and social perspectives.
 Contents:
1 2 3

Adolescence  Early Adulthood The Physiological and

 Middle Adulthood Psychological
Development of the
 Late Adulthood Adolescent
 Adolescence
It is difficult to decide exactly when adolescence begins or
ends, as both boundaries are subject to individual
variation. Is a person an adolescent when he or she
reaches a particular age – say, the teens? Some people at
this age are already relatively mature sexually, whereas
others are still pre-pubertal. Intellectual maturity
can vary just as widely.
And when is adolescence complete – at the end of the teens, at 21, or later?
Some people have adult responsibilities – perhaps a job and family – by their
late teens, while others can be found skateboarding around university campuses,
free of commitments and still quite unsure of where they are heading in life,
into theirmid 20s.
For these reasons, psychologists working on adolescence tend to define the period
broadly, as a time of transition between childhood and adulthood, acknowledging
that the timing and pace of development is subject to considerable variation.
Physical Development
• Puberty is the time (typically during the teen years) when the body's
hormones change and initiate sexual maturation and reproduction abilities.
• Pituitary hormones stimulate changes in primary sex characteristics and
secondary sex characteristics.
• Primary sex characteristics refer to the physical organs involved in
reproduction, like the penis, testes, vagina, and ovaries.
• Secondary sex characteristics involve physical changes that aren't linked to
reproduction, like voice tone, pubic hair, breast growth, and height.
• Acne is common during the teen and young adult years, and there are
different types and severity levels of acne.
• Premature sexual activity means engaging in sex before you are ready and
aware of the risks, sometimes defined as any sexual activity before age 16.
• Transgender or non-binary teens face unique challenges like distress over
gender incongruence.
Cognitive Development
Less immediately visible is an intellectual growth spurt during
this period (Andrich & Styles, 1994). The young person is becoming
capable of thinking about the world, and dealing with the
challenges it presents in new and more powerful ways. Adolescence is a
time of rapid cognitive development. Biological changes in brain
structure and connectivity in the brain interact with increased
experience, knowledge, and changing social demands to produce rapid
cognitive growth.

social and Emotional Development

The adolescent’s social world is changing fast. The changes
reflect the biological and cognitive developments summarized
above, as well as new opportunities and the impact of other
people’s expectations.
 Early Adulthood
It makes sense to divide adulthood into three broad phases: early (from approximately 18 to 40 years of age),
middle (41–65), and late (66+). Clearly, this is only a rough breakdown, and there are substantial
differences within each phase, but it does serve as a preliminary framework for the study
of the largest period of human development – our adult lives.
By the time we reach early adulthood, we have spent a long time developing. Like the young frog hoppingto a
new pond, the young person setting up a first home is physically and mentally transformed from the infant
first presented to his or her parents. Just as it is difficult to determine precisely when adolescence begins
and ends, determining exactly when adulthood commences proves elusive. There are some
rough formal markers, such as reaching a particular birthday, gaining the vote or becoming
eligible to join the military services, but these markers vary across and within societies.
Other criteria, such as gaining financial autonomy, getting married or establishing a home,
are met by different people at widely differing ages, if at all. In fact, no single event in and
of itself establishes an individual as ‘adult’ in all areas of his or her life.
This is part of the challenge of studying adult development.
Not only are the boundaries difficult to identify, but the experiences are widely varied too.
Physical Development
Early adulthood is, for most people, the time of peak physical capacity. The body reaches full height by the
late teens, and physical strength increases into the late 20s and early 30s (Whitbourne, 2001). Manual agility
and coordination, and sensory capacities such as vision and hearing, are also at their peak.
But change is imminent, even in these basic capacities.
Some decline in the perception of high-pitched tones is
found by the late 20s (Whitbourne, 2001), and manual
dexterity begins to reduce in the mid 30s.
In general, people in early adulthood feel robust and
energetic, although it is not unusual to see fluctuations
around deadlines and exam periods! On the other hand,
people in this age group are also legally able to use
damaging substances, such as alcohol and tobacco, and
many can obtain access to illegal stimulants or narcotics.
Young adults also have increasing responsibility for
organizing their own eating habits and exercise regimes.
Not surprisingly, the health status and prospects of young
adults are dependent more than ever before on their own
behavioural choices.
Cognitive Development
By the end of adolescence, most people are capable of the levels of reasoning that we would
expect for normal functioning in adult society. Although there are wide individual
differences in attainment, most young adults are able to deal with cognitive
tasks in a more abstract way than before, and to attain solutions to problems by comparing
possible explanations.
Does this mean that cognitive development has reached a plateau? Many investigators
of adult cognition think not.
Social and Emotional
Development
Young adults face some formidable developmental tasks. Many people at the beginning of this stage are
concerned with launching a career. They may be studying to gain the critical qualifications,
or training at the entry level of an organization. Some will not be so lucky. In many countries, youth
unemployment rates have been very high during the last century and appear set to continue.

Studying, employment and unemployment each presents its stresses. At the same time, young adults tend to
be finding their way through the world of romance, which can also lead to stress and anguish. All of this
happens alongside changes in relationships with parents, and the increasing expectation that the young
person will take responsibility for her own life – including, perhaps, a shift to a new home.

It would be an unusual person indeed who proceeded through these developmental tasks without at least
occasionally wondering who she is, or who she is becoming, and how she is faring
compared to her peers. For most people, facing these issues brings a range of emotional reactions.
Middle Adulthood
During mid-life, people experience a range of external and internal physical changes. External changes include
the appearance of grey hair and hair thinning, increases in facial wrinkles, and a tendency to put on weight
around the waist or lower body. Internal changes include reductions in the efficiency of the cardiovascular,
respiratory and nervous systems.
There are changes to the sensory capacities, too. One of the most noticeable for most middle-aged people is the
onset of presbyopia – a condition of farsightedness due to progressive changes in the shape of the lens of the eye.
This leads to difficulty in reading small print – you may notice people of this age holding printed matter further
away than a younger reader does. Hearing, particularly sensitivity to higher frequency sounds, is also prone to
weaken during middle age.
 Physical Development

During mid-life, people experience a range of external and internal physical changes. External changes include the
appearance of grey hair and hair thinning, increases in facial wrinkles, and a tendency to put on weight around the
waist or lower body. Internal changes include reductions in the efficiency of the cardiovascular, respiratory and
nervous systems. There are changes to the sensory capacities, too. One of the most noticeable for most middle-aged
people is the onset of presbyopia – a condition of farsightedness due to progressive changes
in the shape of the lens of the eye. This leads to difficulty in reading small print – you may notice people of this age
holding printed matter further away than a younger reader does. Hearing, particularly sensitivity to higher frequency
sounds, is also prone to weaken during middle age.
This is the time when women experience the menopause – the cessation of menstruation. Many women suffer
some level of physical and psychological discomfort as a result, such as hot flushes, mood changes, loss of libido
and insomnia. But the intensity of these symptoms varies considerably among individuals, and menopausal status
is not a strong predictor of psychological distress. There is some evidence that the physical symptoms associated
with menopause vary across some cultures. This may reflect variations in diet and/or social expectations about the
nature of the menopause.

As at other stages of the lifespan, physical changes are closely interwoven with psychological changes. Signs of
ageing prompt many people to review their lives and some begin to feel dissatisfied with their bodies. In a large
sample of middle-aged and older Swiss women, for example, Allaz, Bernstein, Rouget et al. (1998) found that a
majority expressed dissatisfaction about their weight and many had dieted to control it, even though their
weight fell within the normal range.
Individuals’ own behavioural choices can moderate the effects of biological changes. For example, menopausal
women who take regular aerobic exercise report more positive moods and less somatic discomfort than non-
exercising peers. The reactions and support of partners can also influence
women’s experience of menopause.
 Cognitive Development
The early and first half of middle adulthood are usually marked by increasing
slope, although the second half of mid-stage adulthood and late adulthood is
marked by a decline in all functionalities. Cognitive functions reach their peak at
around age 35 and then declines for the rest of the life.

Cognitive Development in Adults As people age, their thought processes change,

and though some cognitive abilities decrease in middle age, some increase.
Social and Emotional
Development
Each phase of life brings new challenges, and for many people
mid-life brings a multiplicity of them – from all quarters. By this
time, people’s histories are very varied. In their personal and
occupational lives, many different options may have been chosen
and many different events and circumstances will have affected
their progress. So can we pin down any particular patterns of
social and emotional development associated with middle age?
Despite this variety in individuals’ personal background, some
lifespan developmentalists maintain that we can.
Late Adulthood
Late adulthood is perhaps the most difficult of all to define precisely – mainly
because there is very wide individual variation in the physical, cognitive and social
processes of aging.
In late adulthood, people begin the decline that will be part of their lives until death.
The declines in the senses—vision, hearing, taste, and smell—can have major
psychological consequences. Most illnesses and diseases of late adulthood are not
particular to old age, but the incidences of cancer and heart disease rise with age.
 Physical Development
Age sixty-five is considered a milestone and the beginning of late adulthood. Reaching this age generally brings
about retirement from work, eligibility for Social Security and Medicare benefits, income tax advantages, reduced fares
and admission prices to leisure events, and special purchase or discount privileges.
It is projected that by the year 2020, approximately 16.5% of the population will be sixty-five years of age or older (up
from 4.1% in 1900, 8.1% in 1950, and 12.4% in 2000) (Himes, 2001). This percentage is expected to increase to 20.8% by
2060.
• Changes in body systems and organs with age are highly variable and may be results of disease, which in turn may be
affected by lifestyle.
• Most body systems generally continue to function fairly well, but the heart becomes more susceptible to disease.
Reserve capacity declines.
• Although the brain changes with age, the changes are usually modest. They include loss or shrinkage of nerve cells
and a general slowing of responses. However, the brain also seems able to grow new neurons and build new
connections late in life.
• Visual and hearing problems may interfere with daily life but often can be corrected. Irreversible damage may result
from age-related macular degeneration or glaucoma. Losses in taste and smell may lead to poor nutrition. Training
can improve muscular strength, balance, and reaction time. Older adults tend to be susceptible to accidents and falls.
• Most older people are reasonably healthy, especially if they follow a healthy lifestyle. Most do have chronic
conditions, but these usually do not greatly limit activities or interfere with daily life. The proportion of older adults
with physical disabilities has declined. Still, older adults do need more medical care than younger ones.
• Exercise and diet are important influences on health. Loss of teeth can seriously affect nutrition.
Cognitive Development
During late adulthood, memory and attention decline, but continued efforts to learn and engage in
cognitive activities can minimize aging effects on cognitive development. Aging may create small
decrements in the sensitivity of the senses.
Social and Emotional
Development
Two significant social stages in late adulthood are retirement
and dealing with grief and bereavement. Studies show that a
well-planned retirement can be a pleasant experience.
Research has linked emotion in late adulthood both to
enduring personality factors and to social context. of
particular interest has been the influence of social support
and marriage.Within a developmental framework, differential
emotions theory and attachment theory have had a useful
role to play in theoretical accounts of emotion in later years.
The Physiological and
Psychological Development of the
Adolescent

“The Physiological and Psychological Development of the Adolescent” is a curriculum unit designed to explain
the life of the adolescent from two perspectives. Once viewed, the adult will be able to understand the
reasoning behind the child’s sudden changes in behavior. In turn, they will be more readily available to offer
help to youth during this phase of life when adolescents are attempting to identify and formulate their
self_x0002_image, values, and ideals along with gaining independence from their parents or guardians.
 THE PHYSIOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
OF THE ADOLESCENT

In trying to discuss adolescence, most adults tend to confuse the terms adolescence and puberty, and use them
synonymously. However, puberty refers to the physiological changes involved in the sexual maturation of a child, as
well as other body changes that may occur during this period of time. Adolescence refers to the stage from puberty to
adulthood, and includes the psychological experiences of the child during this period. Adolescence is described as
being the teenage years from thirteen to eighteen years of age; however, puberty decides the onset of adolescence.
Therefore, adolescence occurs in some children as early as nine years of age. During this period of time the child has a
great deal of concern over his/her body image and any discrepancies in the child’s eye such as obesity, early or late
maturation, etc., may be manifested through a variety of disorders.
During adolescence there is a large degree of psychological growth as children make adjustments in their personality
due to the rapid physical and sexual development which are characteristic of this period of life. Adolescents face
ongoing conflict and difficulty adapting to the sudden upsurge of sexual and aggressive drives. These changes cause
unrest and confusion in the adolescents’ inner selves and in the way they perceive the world.
What is
Puberty?
Puberty refers to the physiological changes that the adolescent undergoes in order
to reach sexual maturity. It is best characterized as the gradual onset of mature
reproductive hormonal activity, triggered by the central nervous system,
mainly the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. Most people look at puberty in
three distinct stages railed the pre-pubescent, pubescent, and postpubescent.
The prepubescent stage includes the first evidence of sexual maturation—primary
sexual characteristics—and terminates at the first appearance of pubic hair.
During this stage, reproduction is virtually impossible. During the pubescent stage
the growth spurt begins to accelerate, males experience their first emission of
semen usually in the form of “wet dreams,” and menarche occurs in the females.
The postpubescent stage is characterized by the deceleration of growth
spurt, completion of both primary and sexual characteristics, and fertility is
possible
 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF
THE ADOLESCENT
Adolescent maturation is a personal phase of development where children have to establish their own beliefs,
values, and what they want to accomplish out of life. Because adolescents constantly and realistically appraise
themselves, they are often characterized as being extremely self-conscious. However, the self evaluation process
leads to the beginning of long-range goal setting, emotional and social independence, and
the making of a mature adult.
Three distinct stages can be identified in the psychological development of the adolescent, even though there is a
great deal of overlap in the stages, and they may not occur during the age span indicated. During early adolescence
(ages 11-13), development usually centers around developing a new self-image due to their physiological changes.
Adolescents need to make use of their newly acquired skills of logical thinking and ability to make judgments
rationally. When they reach the ages of fourteen and fifteen (the period known as mid-adolescence), adolescents
strive to loosen their ties to their parents and their emotions and intellectual capacities increase. The adolescent
becomes adventuresome, and experiments with different ideas. This plays an important role in finding one’s relations
to oneself, groups, and opposite sex. During this time, the adolescent battles over his own set of values versus the set
established by parents and other adult figures. The adolescent also begins to take on more control of educational and
vocational pursuits and advantages. It is during this time that adolescents’ self-dependence and a sense of
responsibility become apparent, along with their quest to contribute to society and find their place in it.
Thank
You!