Second Language Acquisition Theory
Acculturation Model
According to Zaker (2015), learning a second language (L2) is now believed to be a multi-faceted
phenomenon which is affected by numerous factors, ranging from internal to social and cultural
factors, and, consequently, many studies have highlighted the significant impact of culture on
learning a second language . Accordingly, culture is now believed to be a major learning-
affecting factor which, along with linguistic competence, facilitates the process of L2 learning
Galloway(2003) defines cultures as “powerful human creations, affording their members a
shared identity, a cohesive framework for selecting, constructing, and interpreting perceptions,
and for assigning value and meaning in consistent fashion.”
One famous longitudinal investigation was conducted
by John H. Schumann during the fall of 1973, a
research project was undertaken to make a ten
month longitudinal study of the untutored acquisition
of English language by six native speakers of Spanish
-two children, two adolescents and two adults. Data
collection involved the questionnaires, recording of
both spontaneous and experimentally elicited
speech, observations on spontaneous conversation
during ten months, and applied a quantitative
treatment to the data. Based on the findings of the
study, Schumann proposed the acculturation
/pidginization model, as a context-sensitive model,
which emphasizes identification with the L2
community as a primary requirement of SLA.
Based on the findings of the above mentioned
study, Schumann (1978) proposed the
acculturation/pidginization model, as a context-
sensitive model, which emphasizes identification
with the L2 community as a primary requirement
of SLA. More specifically, Schumann (as cited in
Long, 1990) argues that SLA is just one aspect of
acculturation along with many others.
Acculturation, according to Schumann (1986), is
the social and psychological integration of the
learner with the target language group. Schumann
further states that any learner can be placed
along a continuum ranging from social-
psychological distance to social-psychological
proximity with the speakers of the target language
(Farhady, 1981).
There are two types of acculturation :
1. Learners are socially integrated with
the TL group and develop sufficient
contacts with TL speakers to enable
them to acquire the target language.
2. Learners consciously or unconsciously
desire to adopt the life style and values
of the TL group.
Both types of acculturation are
important to provoke acquisition of the
TL.
According to Schumann (1986),
Acculturation is the social and
psychological integration of the learner
with the target language group. He
further states that any learner can be
placed along a continuum ranging from
social-psychological distance to social-
psychological proximity with the target
language speakers.
Schumann claims that acculturation, or the
integration of the L2 learner into the target
linguistic community, is not a direct cause of
second language acquisition (SLA), but rather
it is the first in a chain of factors that results
in natural SLA. He proposes that "acculturation
as a remote cause brings the learner into
contact with TL-speakers and verbal
interaction with those speakers as a proximate
cause brings about the negotiation of
appropriate input which then operates as the
immediate cause of language acquisition". His
acculturation model includes eight social
variables and four affective variables which
presumably affect the quantity and quality of
contact that second language learners have
with the target language.
Some learners make rapid progress in second language
learning while others with the same initial ability and language
instruction make little progress in the same amount of time.
Schumann hypothesized that this difference could be accounted
for by the characteristics of the social and psychological factors
that influence the acculturation process and second language
learning.
The eight factors of social distance which greatly hamper in the successful
learning of SLA.
Social dominance: The social dominance considers the degree of equality (subordination or domination) between the
host and guest cultures. If the second-language learning (2LL) group is politically, culturally, technically or economically
dominant to or subordinate to the target language (TL) group, social contact between the two groups will tend not to be
sufficient for optimal target language acquisition. If they are nearly equal in status, then there will be more contact
between the two groups and thus, acquisition of the target language will be enhanced.
Integration pattern or Assimilation, preservation, and adaptation: The best condition for L2 acquisition is obtained
when the 2LL group wants to assimilate into the TL group. The second best condition occurs when the 2LL group wants to
adapt to the TL culture for intragroup interaction without assimilating to it. The least favorable conditions obtain for
acquiring the L2 when the 2LL group wishes to remain separated linguistically and culturally from the TL group.
Enclosure: The more the 2LL groups share social institutions such as schools, churches, workplaces, clubs, and others
with the TL group, the more favorable the conditions will be for L2 acquisition.
Cohesiveness: The guest community tends to stay as a cohesive group but the smaller and less cohesive the 2LL group,
the more likely the contact with the TL group and the more favorable the conditions for L2 acquisition.
Size: If the size of the learner’s group is large ,it tends to facilitate intragroup contact rather than inter-group contact.
Congruence: The more similar the culture of the two groups, the more likely there will be social contact and thus
language acquisition.
Attitude: The more positive the views of the 2LL group toward the TL group, the more favorable will be the conditions
for L2.
Intended length of residence: The longer L2 learners plan to remain in the L2 environment, the more likely it is that
they will feel the necessity of learning the TL.
The four affective variables included in Schumann's
acculturation model are:
Language shock, or the degree to which speaking the new language makes
the learner feel foolish or comical
Culture shock, the extent to which the learner feels disoriented and
uncomfortable with extended residence in a new culture
Ego permeability, the ability of the learner to accept a new identity
associated with the belonging to a new speech community
Motivation, the degree and type of desire experienced by the learner to
acquire the L2. Of these, only motivation seemed particularly applicable to
the situation involved in this research and therefore it will be the only one
included in the data collection. In Schumann's model high levels of
motivation, both integrative and instrumental contribute positively to second
language acquisition.
Criticisms on Acculturation Model
• Kelley (1982) and Stauble (1981) did not find any relationship between
acculturation and proficiency .
Schumann did not include important personal factors such as age, family
separation, previous educational experiences, or the traumatic experiences of
the learner. These additional stress factors determine how well a learner
performs in a new social/school environment.
Criticisms on Acculturation Model
•As a fundamental criticism against the significance of cultural factors in SLA,
Dash (as cited in Mondy, 2007) argues that cultural aspects are quite often, not
so readily identifiable, and that individuals may succeed in SLA despite the social
conditions. Moreover, according to Mondy (2007), there are some learners that
will be determined to succeed, irrespective of any of the conditions that present
themselves, and those learners that will not be successful, regardless of
favorable social circumstances. This implies that individual learner differences,
such as learning style and affective state are more distinguishable as attributing
factors to SLA, than the social conditions (Mondy, 2007). Therefore, we should
avoid making generalization about the importance of cultural factors.
Criticisms on Acculturation Model
•Among other criticisms that the acculturation theory received was that social
factors are assumed to have a direct impact on SLA while they are more likely to
have an indirect one (Ellis, 2008). Also, pidginization is a group phenomenon,
while language acquisition is an individual phenomenon. Moreover, the
acculturation model fails to explain how the social factors influence the quality
of contact the learners experience (Ellis, 2008). Therefore, some people caution
against placing social factors so clearly in the forefront as a separate entity.
Criticisms on Acculturation Model
•Research-wise, it has been argued that if acculturation can be considered as a
unique aspect of SLA, it has to be clearly classified and there needs to be some
ways of measuring the amount of acculturation that is necessary for successful
SLA. The model is problematic, however, in that the concept of acculturation
and what it entails is too complex to be operationally defined and experimentally
tested (Farhady, 1981). Put another way, although this model acknowledges that
the degree of social distance between cultural groups can affect language
learning, it does not provide a means of actually measuring social distance. In
addition, because the model deals with cultural groups rather than individual
learners, it is not useful for accounting for individual differences in learning
outcomes (Bluestone, 2009).
Criticism of Acculturation Model
• According to Freeman & Long (1991), Schumann did not specify the combinations and levels of
social and psychological factors to predict learner’s language outcome.
• Acculturation model also does not explain how social and psychological factors affect the rate of
acquisition. This model does not give statement for the change of the social or psychological
distance over time.
• Does not explain learners current social and psychological distance and how it collarets to the
learner’s proficiency, while learning a L2.
• Does not show how social and psychological factors vary from individual to individual.
Strengths of Acculturation Model
There have been many factors assumed to limit and question the applicability and
validity of the acculturation model; yet, aspects of this model may have significant
educational implications for SLA. That is why Stern (1983) believes this model has given
a “better insight into language learning, designing research studies, and diagnoses
individual patterns of language learning.”
According to Spolsky (1988), successful L2 teaching requires not only the ability to
impart grammatical knowledge but also sensitivity to the social realities faced by
students. Therefore, integrating cultural instruction in order to increase learners’
cultural tolerance, cultural literacy, and native culture appreciation not only becomes a
priority for L2 instructors but also for syllabus designers and policymakers. Adopting
such a context-sensitive perspective might generate higher levels of willingness and
motivation among L2 learners. It is also suggested not to consider teachers and language
instruction a substitute for a naturalistic context where personal experience would
facilitate cultural literacy (Barjasteh & Vaseghi, 2012).
Acculturation model is a conceptual framework that permits the interpretation and
understanding of success or failure in SLA in various contact situations. This theory
attempts to explain the relationship between learners’ second language acquisition and
