DEP 30013 : COMMUNICATION

SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS

1
 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOME
Upon completion of this course, students should be
able to:-
1. apply the concept of electronic communication system by
using appropriate diagram and standard formula
(C3, PLO1)
2. assemble the related communication equipment
systematically in performing the measurement of
appropriate signals parameter(P4, PLO5)
3. demonstrate the ability to work in a team to complete
the assigned tasks during practical work sessions.
(A3, PLO9)
2
CHAPTER 3
MULTIPLEXING AND TRANSMISSION
MEDIUM
(06 : 12)

LEARNING OUTCOME
3.1 Remember Multiplexing (MUX) and Demultiplexing (DEMUX)
3.2 Understand Multiplexing (MUX) and Demultiplexing (DEMUX)
3.3 Understand guided and unguided medium
3.4 Apply guided and unguided medium
3.5 Understand various types of radio wave propagation modes
3.6 Understand antenna

3
 3.1 Remember Multiplexing (MUX) and
Demultiplexing (DEMUX)

At the end of this learning session, student

should be able to explain :
- Remember Multiplexing (MUX) and Demultiplexing
(DEMUX)

4
MULTIPLEXING AND
DEMULTIPLEXING

5
Note
Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of
available bandwidth to achieve specific goals

Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two

devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of
the devices, the link can be shared
Efficiency of bandwidth utilization can be
achieved by MULTIPLEXING; which is sharing of
the bandwidth of one link between multiple
users/sources

6
MULTIPLEXING & DEMULTIPLEXING

 Multiplexing is a technique that combine the information

signals (in any form) from more than one information sources
over the same transmission medium.

 Demultiplexing is a technique to separate the

multiplexed(merged) signal from one link back to its
component transmissions.
7
MULTIPLEXING & DEMULTIPLEXING

Figure 3.1: Multiplexing-Demultiplexing

• In a multiplexed system, n-input lines-sources share the

bandwidth of one link.
• Multiplexer: the n-input lines-sources are multiplexed
(merged) into a single link and then dividing a link into many
n-channels.
8
MULTIPLEXING & DEMULTIPLEXING

• Demultiplexer receives the multiplexed data stream and

extracts them back into their original n-input channels and
directs them to their corresponding lines.
• The word link refers to the transmission medium. While,
the word channel refers to the portion of a link that carries
a transmission between a given pair of lines.
• One link can have many (n) channels.
• The transmission medium may be a metallic wire pair, a
coaxial cable, a PCS mobile telephone, a terrestrial
microwave radio system, a satellite microwave system or an
optical fiber.
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MULTIPLEXING & DEMULTIPLEXING

• The terms “multiplexing” also refers to the

Communication Resources (CR) allocation.

• Function:
i. Combine the information signals that might have
difference characteristics @ forms (analog, digital)
or might originate from difference sources over the
same transmission medium. (the combining signals
is called Communication Resources)
ii. Distribute/allocate/divide the combining signals(CR)
into difference channels over the same transmission
medium.

10
MULTIPLEXING & DEMULTIPLEXING

• Although the transmissions occur on the same transmission

medium, they do not necessarily occur at the same time (t)
or occupy the same bandwidth (BW).
• Multiplexing (MUX) is an efficient approach of CR
allocation into difference channels over the same
transmission medium.

• For the efficient use of high-speed telecommunications

line, it is important to plan out the communication
resource allocation among users system, so that no block of
time or frequency is wasted, so that the users can share
the CR in an equitable manner.

11
MULTIPLEXING & DEMULTIPLEXING

• Advantages:
– Could increase the number of channels in a single transmission
line. Therefore, more information can be transmitted.
– Reduce cost of transmission because higher utilization of
transmission medium.
– Efficiency of bandwidth utilization

• Types - There are several techniques for multiplexing/multiple

access but the basic ways of CR allocation are;
i. Time Division : TDM, TDMA
ii. Frequency Division : FDM, FDMA
iii. Wavelength Division : WDM, WDMA
iv. Code Division : CDMA (TDMA + FDMA)
12
3.2 Understand Multiplexing (MUX) and Demultiplexing
(DEMUX)

At the end of this learning session, student should

be able to explain :
- Elaborate the process of multiplexing and demultiplexing
with the aid of a block diagram
- Explain the following multiplexing techniques with the aid
of a diagram: a. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) b.
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) c. Wavelength
Division Multiplexing (WDM)
- Compare between TDM, FDM and WDM

13
Figure 3.2: Categories of multiplexing

14
1.0 Time Division Multiplexing

15
Note

TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for

combining several low-rate digital
channels/sources into one high-rate one.

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Figure 3.3: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

one Time Slot = one Channel

n-channels repetitive Frame

in one Frame

17
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

 With TDM, the transmission

of info signals from various
sources occur on the same
transmission medium but
NOT at the same time.
 The CR is shared by assigning
each of signals for a short
duration of time called a time
slot.
 Each time slot is assigned as a
channel.

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Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Figure 3.4: TDM-PAM signal

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Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

• From Figure 3.3 and 3.4, it could be seen that the

information signals from various sources are carried in
repetitive Time Frames.
• In synchronous TDM, each Input information source is
divided into n -input units/time slots. (n = number of input
information sources).
• For example, in figure 3.5 information source A is divided to
3 units or time slots which are A1, A2, A3.
• Then, each input unit becomes one output unit and
occupies one output time slot per frame.
• A unit can be one bit, one character or one block of data.
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Figure 3.5: Synchronous time-division multiplexing

Output unit / time slot

Input unit / time slot

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Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

• Each Time Frame consists of a set of n-output time slots.

(n = number of input information sources). If there are 10
input signals, then there are 10 output time slots per
frame.
• However, the duration of an output time slot is n shorter
than the duration of an input time slot.
• If an input time slot is T second, then the output time
slot is T/n second.
• In other words, a unit of output time slot has a shorter
duration; but faster transmission.

22
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

EXAMPLE 3.1:
In Figure 3.6, the data rate for each input connection is 1
mbps. If 1 bit at a time is multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit), what is
the duration of (a) each input slot, (b) each output slot, and
(c) each frame?

Figure 3.6: TDM

23
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

SOLUTION Example 3.1:

a) The bit rate of each input connection is 1 Mbps. The input
one bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate:
1/1 Mbps = 1 μs.
The duration of the input time slot is 1 µs (same as bit
duration).
b) The duration of each output time slot is one-fourth of the
input time slot. This means that the duration of the output
time slot is 1/4 µs.
c) Each frame carries four output time slots. So the duration
of a frame is 4 × 1/4µs, or 1µs. (The duration of a frame is
the same as the duration of an input unit).
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Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

• TDM usually used with digital signals or analogue

signals.
• An analog signal must be converted into digital signal
using PCM technique before multiplexed by TDM.
• Application : in Telephony PCM-TDM.

• For TDM the modulation process is done after

multiplexing.
• Disadvantage : The signal sources take times to transmit.

25
2.0 Frequency Division Multiplexing

26
Note

FDM is an analog multiplexing technique

that combines analog signals.
It uses the concept of analog modulation
discussed in Chapter 2.

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Figure 3.7: Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

one Frequency Band (or Bandwidth) =

one Channel

28
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

 With FDM, the info signals

from multiple sources that
originally occupied the same
frequency spectrum(BW) are
each converted to a different
frequency bands.
 The CR is shared by allocate
each of signals to a different
frequency band.
 Each frequency band is
assigned as a channel.

29
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

• FDM is an analog technique that can be applied when the

bandwidth of a link is greater than the combined
bandwidths of the information signals to be transmitted.
• FDM is used to combine many relatively narrowband
sources into a single wideband before allocated to different
frequency bands (or bandwidth) such as in Public
Telephone Systems.
• FDM is an analog multiplexing scheme. So, the information
signal must be analog.
• For FDM, the modulation process is done before
multiplexing.
30
Figure 3.8: FDM process

31
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

• Modulation is needed to move each info signal source to

the required frequency band (bandwidth).
• Therefore, multiple carriers are used where each is called
subcarrier.
• Each information signal source modulate at different
subcarrier frequency to form a modulated signal at its own
frequency band as shown in Figure 3.8.
• Multiplexing process is needed to combine the modulated
signals on a single transmission line.
• Eg: Commercial AM or FM Radio Broadcasting.

32
 FM Radio Broadcasting

Frequency Band 1 Frequency Band 2 Guard Band

33
Figure 3.9: FDM demultiplexing example

34
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

EXAMPLE 3.2:

Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth

of 4 kHz. We need to combine three voice channels
into a link with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to
32 kHz. Show the configuration, using the frequency
domain. Assume there are no guard bands.

35
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

SOLUTION 3.2:
We shift (modulate) each of the three voice
channels to a different bandwidth, as shown in
Figure 3.10.
We use the 20- to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first
channel, the 24- to 28-kHz bandwidth for the
second channel, and the 28- to 32-kHz bandwidth
for the third one.
Then we combine them as shown in Figure 3.10.

36
Figure 3.10: Example 3.2

37
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

EXAMPLE 3.3:
Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are
to be multiplexed together. What is the minimum
bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard
band of 10 kHz between the channels to prevent
interference?

38
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

SOLUTION 3.3:
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This
means that the required bandwidth is at least
(5 × 100 kHz) + (4 × 10 kHz) = 540 kHz,
as shown in below Figure 3.11.

39
3.0 Wavelength Division Multiplexing

40
Note

WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to

combine optical signals.

41
Figure 3.12: Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)

42
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

• WDM is a method of combining multiple information signals

of light beams at various infrared frequencies for
transmission along fiber optic media.
• Since wavelength (λ) and frequency (f) are closely related,
WDM is similar to FDM.
• WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the
multiplexing and demultiplexing involve optical signals
transmitted through fiber-optic transmission mediums.
• The idea is the same: combine different signals of different
frequencies; but the difference is that the frequencies are
very high (infrared light).
43
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

• Usually used for analog signal.

• WDM is used to overcome the growth in data traffic
because WDM capable to increase the bandwidth capacity
(because use fiber optic cable).
• The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of
metallic cable because of utilization of light signal which
has very high frequency.
• In WDM, the CR is shared by allocate each of signals to a
different wavelength.
• One wavelength = one channel. Different wavelength of
light give a different colors of light.
44
Figure 3.13: Prisms in WDM

Laser Optical Sources Laser Optical Detectors

45
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

• According to Figure 3.13, multiple beams of light at

different frequencies or wavelengths (different colors of
light) are transmitted on the same fiber optic cable.
• Each light beam carries separate data channel.
• WDM combines multiple light sources that have different
wavelength into one single light at multiplexer and do the
reverse at the demultiplexer.
• The combining and splitting of light sources are easily
handled by a prism as shown in Figure 3.14.

46
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Figure 3.14 : Dispersion of light by Glass Prism

• Unlike FDM (has same time, same transmission path); the

different light beam, λ travels at different speed and did not
take the same path, but enter the fiber at the same time and
the same transmission medium.
• Each beam arrives at receiver at a slightly different time.
47
 Comparison of TDM,FDM & WDM
TDM FDM WDM

the Communication resources is shared

The Communication resources are The Communication resources are by allocate each of signals to a different
allocated into many time slots. allocated into many frequency bands. wavelength.

Used for Digital signal Used for Analog signal. Used for Analog signal

Multiple carriers are used, each is One wavelength = one channel. Different
Only one carrier signal (only one called sub-carrier (has many wavelength of light give a different colors
modulator) modulator→ 1 info source, 1 of light.
modulator)

Modulation after multiplexing Modulation before multiplexing

process. process. Modulation during multiplexing process.

48
3.3 Understand guided and unguided medium
3.4 Apply guided and unguided medium
At the end of this learning session, student should
be able to :
- Explain guided and unguided transmission medium
- Explain Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable, Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Cable, Coaxial Cable, Fiber Optic Cable, Waveguide and Micro strip with the
aid of a diagram
- Discuss the characteristic of radio wave and microwave including its
frequency range and application
- Show fiber optic cable more reliable compare to the conventional electrical
cable (copper cable)
- Implement Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable, Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
cable, Coaxial Cable, Fiber Optic cable, Waveguide and Micro strip with the
aid of a diagram in various transmission system

49
TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
• Transmission Medium can be broadly defined as anything
that can carry information from a source to a destination.

Waveguide Microstrip

50
GUIDED MEDIUM

51
Guided Medium : Wired

• Guided media, is a media that provide a conduit from one

device to another device such as;
o Twisted-Pair Cable
o Coaxial Cable
o Fiber-optic Cable
o Microwave transmission medium (waveguide and
microstrip)
• Twisted-pair and Coaxial cable use metallic(copper) conductor
that accept and transport signals in form of electrical current.
• Fiber optic cable use transparent material that accepts and
transports signals in the form of light.
52
1.0 TWISTED PAIR CABLE

53
 TWISTED PAIR CABLE

• A twisted pair cable consists of: two insulated copper wires in

a regular spiral pattern as shown in below figure.
• A pair of wire acts as a single communication link.
• One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, while
the other one is used only as a ground reference.
• Twisted is used to reduce electrical interference from similar
pairs close by (more twists means better quality).

54
TWISTED PAIR CABLE

Twist length of 7.5 cm to 10 cm

Twist length of 7.5 cm to 10 cm

Twist length 0.6 cm to 0.85 cm

Twist length 0.6 cm to 0.85 cm

55
 UTP & STP

There are two types of Twisted Pair Cable:

i. UTP
ii. STP

UTP: Unshielded Twisted Pair

STP: Shielded Twisted Pair
56
 UTP & STP

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

- Cheapest type of cable. - More expensive.
- Easiest type to be installed. - Harder to be installed (thick,
- Suffers from external heavy).
Electromagnetic Interference - Has a metal braid for
(EMI). covering
that can reduces EMI.
57
 Categories of Twisted Pair cables

• The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has

developed standards to classify UTP cable into
seven categories.
• Categories are determined by cable quality, with 1
as the lowest and 7 as the highest.
• Each EIA category is suitable for specific uses.
• Below table shows these categories.

58
Categories of Twisted Pair cables

59
 TWISTED PAIR CABLE connector

RJ-11 Male

RJ-11 Female

RJ=Registered Jack

60
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

Advantages Disadvantages:
a high installed base very noisy
cheap to install limited in distance
easy to terminate ◦ Analog Transmission
 Need amplifiers every 5km to 6km
Easy to work with
◦ Digital Transmission
 Need repeater every 2km or 3km
suffers from interference
Limited of data rate
Easily affected by outer
interference and noise
61
TWISTED PAIR - APPLICATIONS

• Most common medium

• Telephone network
– Between house and local exchange (subscriber
loop)
• Within buildings
• For Local Area Networks (LAN)
– 10Mbps or 100Mbps

62
2.0 COAXIAL CABLE

63
 COAXIAL CABLE

• At higher frequency (above 1MHz), the twisted pair cable is

not any more efficient to used because of the radiation loss
in heat form.
• This is because the twisted pair cable has no sufficient
insulator to protect the signal from radiated.
• Therefore, coaxial cable is designed to overcome this
radiation loss problem by insulated the copper twice.
• Coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency ranges than
those in twisted-pair cable, in part because the two media
are constructed quite differently.

64
 COAXIAL CABLE

• Instead of having two wires, coaxial cable has a central core

conductor of solid and stranded/braided wire (usually
copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath.

 Inner conductor (Copper Core)

 Inner insulator (Inner Dielectric)

 Outer conductor (metal foil or braid)

 Outer insulator

65
 COAXIAL CABLE

• The outer metallic conductor

wrapping serves two function;
– As a shield against noise,
– As the second conductor
which completes the circuit.

66
 COAXIAL CABLE connector

BNC-socket BNC-plug BNC-T BNC-Terminator

67
 COAXIAL CABLE Application

1. Widely used in analog telephone network (single coaxial

cable could carry 10,000 voice signals).
2. Digital telephone network (single coaxial cable could
carry digital data up to 600Mbps).
3. Satellite TV cable (ASTRO)
4. Oscilloscope probes
5. LAN cable

68
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
cheap to install limited in distance
conforms to standards limited in number of
widely used connections
terminations and connectors
Because of the shield or
must be done properly.
jacket that covers the
 High attenuation rate makes
outer and inner
it expensive over long
conductors, it has better distance (needs more
protection from EM repeaters)
Interference and Fragile - transmission can be
crosstalk noise than easily stopped.
twisted pair. Size - thicker than twisted
69
3.0 FIBER OPTIC CABLE

70
 FIBER OPTIC CABLE
 consists of three concentric sections;

 Core - consists a fiber made of glass or plastic or any transparent

material. The core is a path for light propagation.
 Cladding – an insulator made of a glass or plastic or any transparent
material that has optical properties different from the core.
 Coating/Jacket - a non-transparent material which acts as a layer to
protect the fiber against moisture, crushing, and other environmental
dangers 71
Figure 3.15: Fiber construction

72
Light propagation : Bending of light ray

73
 Element in Optical Fiber Communication

• There are 3 elements in Optical Fiber Communication;

i. Light Source (Transmitter)
ii. Fiber Optic Cable (Transmission Medium)
iii. Photo Detector (Receiver)

 Light Source - converts the pulses of electrical current to light pulses.

eg: LED (light emitting diode) and ILD(Injection laser diode).
 Fiber Optic Cable – transmit the light-beam pulses.
 Photo Detector - converts the received light pulses back to pulses of
electrical current. Eg: APD (Avalanche Photodiode) and PIN (Positive
Intrinsic Negative) photodiode.
74
Propagation Modes
Mode = path
Index = refractive index, n

75
Propagation Modes

76
Propagation Modes
SINGLE MODE MULTIMODE STEP INDEX MULTIMODE GRADED INDEX

- Small diameter of core (7 - - Big diameter of core (50µm - - Modest diameter of core
10µm) 100µm). (50µm - 85µm).
- The fastest transfer rate - Slower transfer rate - Modest transfer rate

- Low attenuation - High attenuation - Modest attenuation

- No modal dispersion - High modal dispersion - Low modal dispersion
- Suitable for long distance - For short distance (high - For modest distance
transmission attenuation)
- Expensive because hard to - Cheapest because easy to - Cheaper
build build
77
FIBER OPTIC CABLE Connectors

78
 FIBER OPTIC CABLE – Advantages

1. Greater capacity and higher bandwidth

1. Data rates of hundreds of Gbps.
2. Smaller size & light weight
3. Lower signal attenuation (signal loss)
1. A signal can run for 50km without requiring
regeneration(repeater).
4. No crosstalk (no light leaking)
5. Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
6. Highly secure (no light leaking)
7. Resistance to corrosive materials.
– Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials than copper.
79
 FIBER OPTIC CABLE – Disadvantages

1. Not easy to install and maintain - Require expertise

to do maintenance and installation of cable.
2. Unidirectional light propagation – Propagation of
light is unidirectional. Two fibers are needed for
bidirectional.
3. Expensive cost - more expensive interfaces than
electrical interfaces used with other types (twisted,
coaxial).

80
 FIBER OPTIC CABLE – Application

• Long-distance trunks (1500 km)

• Subscriber loops (to replace twisted pair)
• LANs (100 Mbps – 10 Gbps)
• CCTV for TV studio
• Communication system in military
• Communication system in air force
• Control system at nuclear plant
• Communication and control system in marine
• Connection between monitor and measurement
equipment at laboratory and factory.
81
82
 MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION
MEDIA

WAVEGUIDE MICROSTRIP

RECTANGULAR CIRCULAR RIDGE

83
4.0 WAVEGUIDE

84
 WAVEGUIDE
 Waveguide is a hollow metal tube designed to carry
microwave energy from one place to another without
losses.
 Constructed from highly conductivity material or non-
transparent dielectric material such as copper, aluminum
or brass.
 Aluminium is highly conductive and light but difficult to
weld and solder.
 Brass has the lowest conductivity
but easy to manufacture.

85
 WAVEGUIDE

 Internally plated with gold or silver to reduce radiation loss

and low electrical resistance.
 Has TWO (2) propagation mode of electromagnetic waves
moves inside the waveguide which are:
i. TE (Transverse Electric) mode
ii. TM (Transverse Magnetic) mode
 Has THREE (3) basic types of waveguide;
i. Rectangular
ii. Circular
iii. Rigged
86
 i. RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE

 Widely used as connector between antenna and

electronic equipment
 Used in laboratory due to its light structure

87
 ii. CIRCULAR WAVEGUIDE

 bigger cross section than rectangular.

 possibility of plane of polarization to rotate due to
discontinuities or roughness.
 easier to manufacture than rectangular.
 easier to join together.
88
 iii. RIDGED WAVEGUIDE

 single or double ridge type lowers the value of the cut-off

wavelength, hence decreases the guide’s size.
 increases the useful frequency range.
 reduce the phase velocity.
 higher loss than ordinary rectangular waveguide.

89
 WAVEGUIDE – Advantages

1. Easier to fabricate than coaxial cable

2. No flashover
3. Better power handling capability (10x as much as
coaxial cable)
4. Lower power loss - wave travels along the guide
without greatly attenuating as it goes.
5. Higher operating frequency.
6. Routable - can easily bend the guiding structure
without generating reflection and without incurring
additional losses.
90
5.0 MICROSTRIP

91
MICROSTRIP

Substrate @ Dielectric

92
 MICROSTRIP
 Microstrip is a type of electrical transmission line which
can be fabricated using printed circuit board (PCB)
technology, and is used to convey microwave frequency
signals.
 It consists of a conducting strip separated from a
conductor ground plane by a dielectric layer known as
the substrate.
 Microwave components such as antennas, couplers,
filters, power dividers etc. can be formed from microstrip.
The entire device existing as the pattern of metallization
on the substrate.
93
 MICROSTRIP POWER DIVIDER / COMBINER

BAND PASS FILTER

ARRAY ANTENNA
DIRECTIONAL COUPLER
94
MICROSTRIP connector

SMA – male (plug)

SMA – female
(jack)
95
 MICROSTRIP – Advantages &
Disadvantages

ADVANTAGES
• Much less expensive than traditional waveguide technology,
• well as being far lighter and more compact than waveguide.

DISADVANTAGES
Compare to waveguide;
• lower power handling capacity.
• higher losses.
• microstrip is not enclosed, and is
therefore susceptible to cross-talk
and unintentional radiation.

96
UNGUIDED MEDIUM

97
Unguided Media: Wireless

• Unguided medium transport the electromagnetic waves

through the air/free space without guidance from a physical
conductor.
• This types of communication is often referred as wireless
communication.
• Signals are normally broadcast through free space by using
antenna and thus are available to anyone who has a
device to capture the signals.

98
Unguided Media: Wireless

99
Figure 3.16: Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

100
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
Microwave Band

Fiber Optic Band

Radio Frequency (RF) Band

Figure 3.17: Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum

 Radio wave band:1MHz - 1THz

 Microwave band: 0.3GHz - 300GHz (0.3THz)
 Fiber optic band: 0.3THz – 300THz
101
 Radio waves
 Frequency below 1GHz
 Frequency range : 1MHz – 1THz.
 Radio wave is an electromagnetic wave.
 Easily interfere with other signals sent at the same
frequency range.
 Can penetrate walls and can be received in the building.
 Can travel long distance – suitable for long distance
broadcasting such as AM radio.
 Highly regulated. Use Omni-directional antennas

Radio waves are used for multicast

communications, such as radio and television,
paging systems & cellular phones.
102
 Microwaves
 Frequency: 1GHz to 300GHz
 Frequency Range: 0.3GHz – 300GHz (0.3THz)
 The microwaves also a radio wave because its frequency range
(0.3GHz – 0.3THz) is lied in radio wave frequency range (1MHz –
1THz).
 However, for not confusing, frequency above 1GHz is refer as
microwave , while below 1GHz is radio wave.
 Microwave propagation is highly directional (line-of-sight
propagation) – used Directional Antenna.
 Very high frequency microwaves, usually, cannot penetrate walls
(disadvantage, if receivers are inside buildings).

Microwaves are used for long distance telephone

communications using repeaters, short point-to-point
transmission between buildings to connect their LANs,
and satellite communication .
103
 3.5 Understand various types of radio wave
propagation modes

At the end of this learning session, student

should be able to :
- Explain the following radio wave propagation
modes with an illustration of a diagram:
a. Ground wave propagation
b. Sky wave propagation
c. Space wave propagation

104
Radio Waves Propagation

 There are 4 types of radio wave propagation

which are;
i. Ground wave
ii. Sky wave
iii. Space wave
iv. Satellite link

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 Radio waves Propagation

Satellite Link
Li
n e-
k) o f-
plin Ionosphere S
(u ig
ht
t
igh Sky wave (d
S o
f- wn
-o lin
ne k)
Li Ground wave

Line-of-Sight

Earth Station I Reflective wave Earth Station II

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Propagation Methods

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 i. Ground Waves
 Radio wave that propagates close to the surface of earth.
 The waves are diffracted by the figure of the earth due to
their low frequencies.
 Conductivity of the surface affects the propagation of ground
waves, with more conductive surfaces such as water
providing better propagation.
 Since the ground is not a perfect electrical conductor, ground
waves are attenuated as they follow the earth’s surface.
 Application:
- over-the-horizon radar
- AM long wave broadcasting
- amateur radio
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 ii. Sky Waves
 Sky wave is the propagation of electromagnetic waves bent
(refracted) back to the Earth's surface by the ionosphere.
 The ionosphere is a region of the upper atmosphere, where
neutral air is ionized by solar photons and cosmic rays.
 When radio waves reach the ionosphere at oblique incidence
they are bent downwards (refracted) in the ionized layer.
 Waves above 30 MHz usually penetrate the ionosphere and
are not returned to the Earth's surface.
 Application:
- Long distance (high frequency) radio communication.
- amateur radio

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 iii. Space Waves
 Radio wave that propagates a few meters from the earth
surface (troposphere ).
 Has two components;
i. Line-of-sight (wave propagates straight from Transmitter
antenna to Receiver antenna)
ii. Reflective wave
 Used in VHF band with frequency over 30MHz.
 The maximum distance between earth base stations is
determined by antenna height and the curvature of earth
surface because the high frequency wave propagates at line-of-
sight.
 Application:
 Long distance (high frequency) radio communication.
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Radio Frequency Bands

111
 3.6 Understand antenna

At the end of this learning session, student

should be able to :
- Explain antenna
- Elaborate the antenna radiation pattern with an
illustration
- Discuss types of antenna:

112
 ANTENNA
• Definition: an antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which
converts electric currents into electromagnetic waves and
vice versa.
• Any conducting material can becomes an antenna. However
an antenna is design to radiate or receive electromagnetic
wave with directional and polarization suitable for intend
application.

Monopole Antenna Dipole Antenna Loop Antenna

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ANTENNA
• are made in various shape & size
• usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver.
• an antenna can be used for both transmitting and
receiving radio waves.

Horn Antenna Parabolic-Dish Antenna

Yagi-Uda Antenna

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ANTENNA - Function

1. In transmission, a radio transmitter applies an

oscillating radio frequency electric current to the
antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates the
energy from the current as electromagnetic waves.

2. In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the

power of an electromagnetic wave in order to
produce a tiny voltage at its terminals, that is
applied to a receiver to be amplified.

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ANTENNA – Radiation Pattern

• Antenna Radiation Pattern is a graphical

depiction of the relative electromagnetic field
strength transmitted from or received by the
antenna.
• Is measured in power(dB).

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Types of ANTENNA

Omni-directional Antenna
• receive or radiate radio waves in all directions (360º)
• In cellular system, only one Omni-directional antenna is
used to cover 360º coverage.
• Usually used in macro-cell which has less subscriber.

Directional Antenna
• receive or radiate radio waves in one particular direction
• In cellular system, needs 3 directional(120º) antenna or 6
directional(60º) antenna to cover 360º coverage.
• Usually used in micro-cell which has more subscriber.

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Figure 3.17: Omnidirectional antenna

118
Figure 3.18: Directional antennas

119
ANTENNA – Radiation Pattern
H-plane = E-plane

H-plane E-plane

Directional Radiation Pattern

Omni-Directional Radiation Pattern

120
 REFERENCES
• Wayne T. (2004). Electronic Communication Systems: Fundamentals
Through Advance (6th ed). Prentice Hall. ISBN-10: 0130453501 or
ISBN-13: 9780130453501
• M. Forouzan, B.A. (2012). Data Communications and Networking
(5th ed). Mc Graw Hill. (ISBN: 978-0-07-131586-9)

• Bernard Sklar (2001). Digital Digital Communications: Fundamentals

and Application (2nd ed). Prentice Hall. (ISBN10: 0130847887,
ISBN13: 9780130847881)

• Hwei Hsu (2002). Schaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of

Analog and Digital Communications (2nd ed). McGraw-Hills. ISBN-10:
0071402284. ISBN-13: 978-0071402286

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