EARTH AND LIFE

SCIENCE
Perpetuation of Life
Reproduction Plants And Animals
Genetic Engeneering
How Genes Work

Group 3 Presentation
PLANTS ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual propagation involves taking a part of one
parent plant and causing it to regenerate itself into
a new plant. The resulting new plant is genetically
identical its parent. Asexual propagation involves the
vegetative parts of a plant: stems, roots, or leaves.
Plants Reproduction
In plants there are two modes of reproduction, asexual and
sexual. There are several methods of asexual reproduction such
as fragmentation, budding, spore formation and vegetative
propagation. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and
female gametes.
PLANTS ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual propagation involves taking a part of one
parent plant and causing it to regenerate itself into
a new plant. The resulting new plant is genetically
identical its parent. Asexual propagation involves the
vegetative parts of a plant: stems, roots, or leaves.
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction in
. by a single parent.
which a new offspring is produced
The new individuals produced are genetically and
physically identical to each other, i.e., they are the
clones of their parents. Asexual reproduction is
observed in both multicellular and unicellular
organisms.

Two types:
1. Apomixis
2. Vegetative Reproduction
• Natural 
• Artificial
 APOMIXIS
It is the type of asexual reproduction that produces
seeds without fertilization
This ensures/ that the parent plant is able to
reproduce an offspring that is well-suited to the
environment that it is acclimated

Examples of apomixis can be found in the genera

crataegus (hawthorns), amelanchier (shadbush),
sorbus (rowans and whitebeams), rubus (brambles
or blackberries), poa (meadow grasses), nardus
stricta (matgrass), hieracium (hawkweeds) and
taraxacum (dandelions).
 Vegetative Propagation
Vegetative propagation is an asexual method of
plant reproduction that occurs in its leaves, roots
and stem. This can occur through fragmentation
and regeneration of specific vegetative parts of
plants.
 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
Processes of Vegetative Propagation
Fragmentation A type of asexual reproduction where an
organism upon maturation breaks down into fragments (or
pieces) and each fragment grows into a new organism.
Regeneration is the natural process of replacing or restoring
damaged or missing cells, tissues, organs, and even entire
body parts to full function in plants and animals.

Types Of Vegetative Propagation

Natural Vegetative Propagation occurs when an
axillary bud grows into a lateral shoot and develops its
own roots (also known as adventitious roots). Plant
structures allowing natural vegetative propagation
include bulbs, rhizomes, stolons and tubers.
Artificial Vegetative Propagation These methods
involve taking a piece of one parent plant and causing it
to regenerate itself into a new plant. Common methods
include cuttings, grafting and budding, and tissue culture.
 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
Types of Natural Vegetative Propagation
Adventitious roots are plant roots
that form from any nonroot tissue and
are produced both during normal
development (crown roots on cereals
and nodal roots on strawberry
[Fragaria spp.]) and in response to
stress conditions, such as flooding,
nutrient deprivation, and wounding
Adventitious Roots; examples include
orchids (Orchidaceae), bromeliads
(Bromeliaceae), and many other
epiphytic plants…
.
 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
Types of Natural Vegetative Propagation
Adventitious roots are plant roots
that form from any nonroot tissue and
are produced both during normal
development (crown roots on cereals
and nodal roots on strawberry
[Fragaria spp.]) and in response to
stress conditions, such as flooding,
nutrient deprivation, and wounding
Adventitious Roots; examples include
orchids (Orchidaceae), bromeliads
(Bromeliaceae), and many other
epiphytic plants…
.
 Types of Specialized Stem
Rhizomes are simply fleshy underground stems.
They grow underground or right at ground level with
many growing points or eyes similar to potatoes.
Common examples of rhizomes include canna lilies,
bearded Iris, ginger and bamboo.
 Types of Specialized Stem

Tuber functions in asexual propagation as a

result of the tiny scale leaves equipped with
buds that grow on its surface.
 Types of Specialized Stem
Bulbs produce smaller buds (lateral buds) that
appear between the layers of the parent bulb. As
the mature plant gets to the end of its life, the
lateral bud develops into a smaller bulb that
attaches to the base of the parent bulb. The new
bulb can be separated and planted.
 Types of Specialized Stem
Corms in vegetative propagation They are
swollen underground stems with dry-scale leaves
covering them. In favorable conditions, they grow
in size and can remain dormant in adverse
conditions. Corms can be cut into pieces and each
piece planted to produce a new plant.
 Types of Specialized Stem

Stolons, which are sometimes called runners, are a

type of horizontal, above-ground stem found in some
species of plants that help the plant to propagate
efficiently through asexual reproduction.
The common stolon bearing plants are Jasmine,
Colocasia, etc.
 Types of Artificial
Vegetative Propagation
Grafting is a method of asexual plant propagation that
joins plant parts from different plants together so they will
heal and grow as one plant. This technique is used to
propagate plants that do not root well from cuttings, to
utilize superior root systems, or to maintain clonal
production.
Types of Artificial Vegetative Propagation

Cutting is a detached vegetative part of a plant,

which on separation and planting is able to regenerate
the missing parts and develop itself into a new plant. It
is an inexpensive and quick method of propagation. A
large number of uniform plants can be produced using
few parent plants.

Cutting  is the most common artificial propagation.

Types: Stem, Root, Leaf
Stem cutting
Root cutting
Leaf Cutting
Stem: The cuttings of a healthy young branch of a
plant having leaf buds, which is planted in moist soil
is called stem cutting. The cutting develops roots
and grows into a new plant. Examples: Chameli,
Bougainvillea, rose and sugarcane.
 Types of Artificial
Vegetative Propagation
Grafting is a method of asexual plant propagation that
joins plant parts from different plants together so they will
heal and grow as one plant. This technique is used to
propagate plants that do not root well from cuttings, to
utilize superior root systems, or to maintain clonal
production.
Root cuttings are used to propagate plants that
naturally produce suckers (new shoots) from their
roots. This technique has several advantages:
Root cuttings require no special aftercare. Large
numbers of new plants can be generated from
each parent plant.
Leaf cuttings are prepared by taking a single leaf from
the plant. This leaf must generate not only new roots,
but new shoots as well. The leaf used for propagation
usually does not become part of the new plant, but
disintegrates after the new plant is formed.
 Types of Artificial
Vegetative Propagation
Layering is a technique of plant propagation where
the new plant remains at least partially attached to
the mother plant while forming new roots and can
occur naturally through modified stem structures.
 Types of Artificial
Vegetative Propagation
Grafting is a method of asexual plant propagation that
joins plant parts from different plants together so they will
heal and grow as one plant. This technique is used to
propagate plants that do not root well from cuttings, to
utilize superior root systems, or to maintain clonal
production.
Asexual Reproduction does not need two parents in order to
reproduce.

Asexual reproduction has many types and examples.

Apomixis is the production of seeds without fertilization.

Natural Vegetative Propagation is growth of new plant from stem,

roots, and leaves without human intervention.

Artificial Vegetative Propagation requires human intervention.

 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual Reproduction, the production of new organisms by the
combination of genetic information of two individuals of different
sexes. In most species the genetic information is carried on
chromosomes in the nucleus of reproductive cells called gametes,
which then fuse to form a diploid zygote.

TYPES OF PLANTS
Gymnosperms
Angiosperms are a relatively small group
are plants that of plants that do not flower
produce flowers and bear "naked seeds."
and bear their This means that the seeds
seeds in fruits are produced on the
surface of the reproductive
structure, rather than
enclosed within it as in a
fruit.
 PARTS OF FLOWERS
Androecium refers to the male part of the
flowers, whereas gynoecium refers to the
female part of the flower. This is the main
difference between androecium and
gynoecium.
Androecium is made up of male reproductive
units called stamens. They produce sperm
cells packaged inside pollen grains. An
androecium is usually made up of multiple
stamina (plural of stamen); each is composed
of two parts, the filament and the anther.

Gynoecium is the female reproductive part

of the flower and is essential for plant sexual
reproduction. A new study shows a novel
angiosperm-specific gene family that fine
tunes the architecture of the stigma and style
in Arabidopsis.
 PARTS OF CONES

Male cones in Pinus are small structures that are present

together in clusters. They consist of several microsporophylls
that bear microsporangia which produce the pollen grains.

Female Cone (megastrobilus, seed cone, or ovulate cone)

contains ovules which, when fertilized by pollen, become seeds.
The female cone structure varies more markedly between the
different conifer families, and is often crucial for the identification of
many species of conifers.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANGIOSPERMS

Pollination the transfer of pollen to the

megagametophyte, in gymnosperms is
carried out by the wind and the pollen grains
possess two air sacs to aid this process.
Hence pollen provided a novel mechanism
for transfer of the sperm to the egg cell, with
free liquid water no longer being necessary.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANGIOSPERMS
•Autogamy is the fertilization of a flower by pollen
from the same flower.
• Geitonogamy is the fertilization of a flower by
pollen from another flower on the same plant.
• Xenogamy is the fertilization of a flower by the
pollen of a flower from a genetically different plant.

Autogamy
Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms
 Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms
Post-fertilization is a series
of events that takes place
after fertilization to develop a
seed from an ovule and a fruit
from an ovary.

Sexual Reproduction in Gymnosperms

In Gymnosperms, Pollination
involves pollen transfer from the male
cone to the female cone. Upon transfer,
the pollen germinates to form the pollen
tube and the sperm for fertilizing the
egg. Pollination has been well studied
since the time of Gregor Mend
Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms
Fertilization is
particularly complex in
flowering plants
(angiosperms). Sperm
cells of angiosperms
have lost their motility
and require
transportation as a
passive cargo by the
pollen tube cell to the
egg apparatus (egg cell
and accessory synergid
cells).
 Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms
Post-fertilization is a series
of events that takes place
after fertilization to develop a
seed from an ovule and a fruit
from an ovary.

Sexual Reproduction in Gymnosperms

In Gymnosperms, Pollination
involves pollen transfer from the male
cone to the female cone. Upon transfer,
the pollen germinates to form the pollen
tube and the sperm for fertilizing the
egg. Pollination has been well studied
since the time of Gregor Mend
Sexual Reproduction in Gymnosperms
Fertilization occurs when pollen
grains (male gametophytes) are
carried by the wind to the open
end of an ovule, which contains
the eggs, or female gametophyte.

Post-Fertilization is a series of events

that takes place after fertilization to
develop a seed from an ovule and a
fruit from an ovary
Sexual reproduction in plants require the union of
male (pollen) and female (ovule) sex cells.

Angiosperms are flowering plants. Gymnosperms

have no flowers or fruits, instead, they have cones.

Flowers are the reproductive organs in angiosperms.

They consist of the androecium (male structure) and
gynoecium (female structure). 
Animal Reproduction

The formation of new animal individuals, which may

occur by asexual or sexual means. All animals must
reproduce asexually or sexually to create new
individuals of their species. In asexual reproduction, a
single parent can produce offspring that are genetically
identical to itself.
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction is the production of new
individuals from a single parent. This type of
reproduction is generally observed in single-celled
organisms. Here no fusion of gametes is involved
and a single parent divides into two or more
daughter cells.
Fourtypes:

1.Fission
• Natural
• Artificial
2.Fragmentation
3.Budding
4.Parthenogenesis
Sea anemone reproduces asexually.
 TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Fission also called binary fission, occurs in prokaryotic
microorganisms and in some invertebrate, multi-celled
organisms. After a period of growth, an organism splits into
two separate organisms. Some unicellular eukaryotic
organisms undergo fission by mitosis.

TYPES OF FISSION
Binary Fission In this type of reproduction, parent cell divides
into two equal parts each containing a nucleus. These are called
daughter cells. The daughter cells are genetically and physically similar
to the parent cell

Multiple fission also occurs among protists and is common in

some parasitic species. The nucleus divides repeatedly to produce a
number of daughter nuclei, which eventually become the nuclei of the
progeny after repeated cellular divisions.
 TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Fragmentation is the breaking of the body into two parts
with subsequent regeneration. If the animal is capable of
fragmentation, and the part is big enough, a separate individual will
regrow. Many sea stars reproduce asexually by fragmentation.

Budding is a form of asexual reproduction that results from

the outgrowth of a part of a cell or body region leading to a
separation from the original organism into two individuals.
Budding occurs commonly in some invertebrate animals such as
corals and hydras.

Parthenogenesis is a form of reproduction in which an

egg can develop into an embryo without being fertilized by a
sperm. Parthenogenesis is derived from the Greek words for “virgin
birth,” and several insect species including aphids, bees, and ants
are known to reproduce by parthenogenesis.
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction is the production of a new organism
from two parents by making use of their sex cells or gametes. In
this process male gametes fuses with a female gamete to form a new
cell called 'zygote'. This zygote then grows and develops in to a new
organism in due course of time.

STATGES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Gametogenesis, the production of sperm and eggs,
includes the process of meiosis to produce haploid cells, and growth
and maturation of these cells into oocytes and sperm. The production
of sperm is called spermatogenesis and the production of eggs is
called oogenesis.

Fertiliation The process of fusion of sperm with egg (ovum) to

produce a zygote is called fertilization. It is the crucial and primary stage
of sexual reproduction.
 GAMETONGENESIS

Oogenesis the differentiation of the ovum differs from

spermatogenesis in several ways. Whereas the gamete
formed by spermatogenesis is essentially a motile nucleus,
the gamete formed by oogenesis contains all the materials
needed to initiate and maintain metabolism and development.

Spermatogenesis is the production of sperm from

the primordial germ cells. Once the vertebrate PGCs arrive
at the genital ridge of a male embryo, they become
incorporated into the sex cords.
 STAGES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Fertiliation During sexual reproduction, the haploid gametes of

the male and female individuals of a species combine in a
process called fertilization. Typically, the small, motile male sperm
fertilizes the much larger, sessile female egg. This process produces a
diploid fertilized egg called a zygote.
External Fertilization in animals usually occurs in water or in
damp areas in a process called spawning. Moisture in the
environment keeps the gametes from drying out. Moisture is also
important so the eggs and sperm can move around freely, which
lets them meet and fuse.
Internal Fertiliation In sexual reproduction, the male inserts the
semen into the female reproductive tract to fuse with the egg. If the fusion
takes place within the female parent, it is called internal fertilization.
In humans and most animals like cats, lions, pigs, dogs, hens, etc., the
fusion of gametes takes place internally.
 INTERNAL FERTILIATION

Oviparity, fertilized eggs are laid outside the female's body and

develop there, receiving nourishment from the yolk that is a part of the
egg. This occurs in most bony fish, many reptiles, some cartilaginous
fish, most amphibians, two mammals, and all birds.

Ovoviviparity The fertilized eggs are retained in the female's body where
they receive nourishment from the yolk. The eggs are laid right before they are
hatched. Viviparity– The offspring are born directly instead of hatching from the
eggs. They receive nutrition from the mother.

Viviparity the young develop within the female, receiving

nourishment from the mother's blood through a placenta. The offspring
develops in the female and is born alive. This occurs in most mammals, some
cartilaginous fish, and a few reptile
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Post Fertilization The zygote divides through
mitosis and develops into an embryo. This development
of the embryo from the zygote is called embryogenesis.
Cell differentiation also occurs at this stage, where
specialized tissues and organs are formed.
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Post Fertilization The zygote divides through
mitosis and develops into an embryo. This development
of the embryo from the zygote is called embryogenesis.
Cell differentiation also occurs at this stage, where
specialized tissues and organs are formed.
GENETIC ENGENEERING

Genetic engineering, also called

genetic modification or genetic
manipulation, is the modification and
manipulation of an organism's genes using
technology
Genetecally Modified Organisims (GMO)
A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an animal,
plant, or microbe whose DNA has been altered
using genetic engineering techniques. For
thousands of years, humans have used breeding
methods to modify organisms. Corn, cattle, and even
dogs have been selectively bred over generations to
have certain desired traits.
 THE PROCESS OF GENETIC
ENGENEERING
Isolation The isolation of DNA fragments (sometimes specific
genes) from a donor organism. The insertion of an isolated donor DNA
fragment into a vector genome.The growth of a recombinant vector in
an appropriate recipient host organism.

Ligation, the joining of DNA fragments, is a fundamental procedure in molecular

cloning and is indispensable to the production of genetically modified organisms that
can be used for basic research, the applied biosciences, or both

Genetic transformation involves the transfer and incorporation of foreign

DNA into a host genome. In order for this transferred DNA to be transmitted to later
generations, transformation of germline or other appropriate cells of the recipient
species is essential.

Selection Transformed bacteria are normally selected by using Xgal.

The bacteria transfers the Bt toxin gene into corn cells.

 How Genes Work
A gene is a short section of DNA. Your genes contain
instructions that tell your cells to make molecules called
proteins. Proteins perform various functions in your body to
keep you healthy. Each gene carries instructions that
determine your features, such as eye colour, hair colour and
height.
 DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
Deoxyribonucleic acid (abbreviated DNA) is the molecule
that carries genetic information for the development and
functioning of an organism. DNA is made of two linked
strands that wind around each other to resemble a
twisted ladder — a shape known as a double helix.

Proteins
Most genes contain the information needed to make
functional molecules called proteins. (A few genes produce
regulatory molecules that help the cell assemble proteins.)
The journey from gene to protein is complex and tightly
controlled within each cell. It consists of two major
steps: transcription and translation
 PROTEINS SERVE DIVERSE
FUNCTIONS IN ORGANISMS:
Enzymes that catalyze Peptide hormones that act
biochemical reactions in as chemical messengers.
cells.

Blood pH regulators such

Structural Proteins as hemoglobin.
that provide additional
support to tissues.
Provide immunity such as
the antibodie.
Enzymes that catalyze
biochemical reactions in
cells.

Structural Proteins
that provide additional
support to tissues.
 DISCOVERY OF DNA

DNA was discovered in 1869 by Swiss researcher

Friedrich Miescher, who was originally trying to study
the composition of lymphoid cells (white blood cells).
Instead, he isolated a new molecule he called nuclein
(DNA with associated proteins) from a cell nucleus.

ERWIN CHARGAFF
• He determined that DNA is responsible for heredity in
living organisms
Method: various DNA extraction and analyzing techniques
Conclusions: His findings are now referred to as the Chargaff’s rules.
 DESCOVERY PF DNA

ROSALIND FRANKLIN
was an English chemist and X-ray
crystallographer who worked with Maurice Wilkins. They
were able to
capture two sets of photographs of DNA fibers

JAMES WATSON AND FRANCIS CRICK

They discovered the double helix structure of DNA upon
analysis of existing X-ray crystallography data.
 STRUCTURE OF DNA
DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is a double-helical,
antiparallel molecule wherein genetic
information is coded as the sequences of bases
NUCLEOTIDES
Nucleotides are the monomers of DNA
Each nucleotide consists of a deoxyribose, a phosphate,
and nitrogenous base
BASE PAIRING
There are four bases in DNA – adenine (A), thymine (T),
guanine (G), and cytosine ©. Adenine pairs with
thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosin

STRANDS OF DNA
The two strands of DNA are antiparallel. The two strands of a
DNA molecule run in opposite directions.
The coding strand runs in 5′ to 3′ direction.
The template strand runs in 3′ to 5′ direction.
CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
GENE
• A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a
specific functional protein or a trait
• Proteins in turn, have varying functions. They may
catalyze reactions, facilitate transport, or transmit
messages.
• It is a set of processes that involves replication and
gene expression
CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
REPLICATION
DNA replication has the following major steps:
1. Unzipping and unwinding;
2. Replication fork formation;
3. DNA strand synthesis; and
4. Ligation
• The process of DNA replication is semiconservative
• The resulting DNA molecules will always have a member of the
original strand
TRANSCRIPTION
• RNA (ribonucleic acid), the product of DNA transcription, is single-
stranded and has the base uracil (U) instead of thymine
• To produce an mRNA molecule, the following major steps
must be accomplished:
1. Unzipping and unwinding
2. Promoter attachment
3. mRNA synthesis; and
4. rho factor binding
 CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR
BIOLOGY
TRANSLATION
• To produce an amino sequence, the following major steps
must be accomplished.
1. Codon recognition
2. tRNA binding
3. Peptide bond formation
4. Amino acid elongation; and
5. termination

GENETIC CODE
• The genetic code is:
1. Triplet
2. Non-overlapping
3. Commaless
4. Unambiguity
5. Degeneracy
6. Polarity
7. Start and stop signals; and
8. Nearly universal
 FOR EASY UNDERSTANDING:
• The deoxyribonucleic acid or the DNA is the basic hereditary
unit in all organisms.
• DNA is consists of nucleotides, which are composed of a five-
carbon sugar (deoxyribose), a nitrogenous base, and a
phosphate group.
• There are four nitrogenous bases in a DNA— adenine (A), thymine
(T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).
• Nucleotides are named based on which nitrogenous base is present.
• Genes are short segments of DNA that are considered as
the basic units of heredity
• The central dogma of molecular biology explains
that DNA is copied then transcribed into ribonucleic
acid, RNA, that direct the synthesis of protein
molecules.