Facilitating Learning


Basic Concepts

 Growth

 Refers to the progressive increase and continuous
advancement of the child from birth to maturity.
 Refers primarily to the increment in bodily
tissues, organ and structures.
 Refers not only in an increase in quantity or in
size but also in enlarged capacity and changing
proportions.
 Quantifiable
 Development

 Refers to the gradual and orderly unfolding
of the characteristics of the individuals as
they go through the successive stages of
growth.
 Involves changes from simplicity to
complexity and implies an increasingly
progressive maturity of behaviour as well as
organization of personality and character.
 Types of Development

 Physical (ex. running, jumping, holding
pencil and drawing)
 Cognitive(ex. Think, reason, use language
and process information)
 Socio-emotional(ex. Personality, self-
concept, identity, and social skills)
 Motor - refers to the physical growth or
growth in the ability of the children to use
their bodies and their physical skills.
 Heredity

 The process of transmitting biological
traits from parents to offspring through
genes, the basic units of heredity;
accounts for why offspring look like
their parents.
 Maturation

 Refers to that part of development that is controlled
from within the “internal ripening” aspects,
indicating that growth has reached its optimal level.
 It designates a process of internal growth consisting
chiefly of structural changes and coordination within
the nervous systems together with a level of
development of mental functions which is indicated
of readiness to engage in a definite type of
behaviour.
 Not quantifiable
 Environment

 Refers to the totality of surrounding
conditions that influence the
growth, development, and survival
of the organism.
 Is one of the risk factors for
developmental problems.
 Basic Social Units

 Family
 School
 Peer group
 Neighbourhood
 Principle of Human Growth and
Development

1. Heredity (Nature) and Environment
(Nurture) play a vital role in the
development of the organism.
• Their processes are interdependent.
Neither appears to be dominant.
• Physical characteristics which can be
predicted by heredity are also affected
to an extant by nutrition (ex. Height)
 Principle of Human Growth and
Development

2. Development follows a pattern.
 development of every species
follows a pattern in rate of limit.
 There are no two identical growth
patterns.
 Principle of Human Growth and
Development

3. Development proceeds from general to
specific.
 In all phases of development neither motor nor
mental, the child responses are of general sort
before they become specific.
 Ex. A baby can see large before he sees small
ones, because his eye movements are not
coordinated enough at first to focus on small
objects.
 Principle of Human Growth and
Development

4. Growth/Development is
sequential.
 Growth follows an orderly sequence
which is generally applicable for all
individuals.
 Language, Mental, Moral, Social and
other aspects of development occur
sequentially.
 Principle of Human Growth and
Development

5. Development occurs at different rates for
different parts of the body.
 Not all parts of the body grow at the same
rate, nor do all aspect of mental growth
proceed equally.
 Speed of development is not even.
 Ex. The brain attains its mature size around
the age of 6-8 years, but gains much
organization after that.
 Principle of Human Growth and
Development

6. Each development phase has traits
characteristics of it.
 At each age, some traits develop more
rapidly and more conspicuously than
others.
 Traits become more complex as the child
gets older.
 Principle of Human Growth and
Development

7. The body tends to maintain a state of
equilibrium called “homeostasis”.
 Our body strives to preserve a
constant internal environment
despite changing conditions, whether
internal or external.
 Principle of Human Growth and
Development

8. Most traits are correlated.
 The child whose intellectual
development above average is
generally above in sociability and
special aptitudes.
 Principle of Human Growth and
Development

9. Many forms of so called “problem
behaviour” are normal behaviour of the age in
which they occur.
 Lack of understanding of the normal behavior
of children at different ages is responsible for
the occurrence of the parent-child fiction.
 Stages in Life Span
Development

1. Prenatal – Conception to birth. (Physical Development)

2. Infancy – Birth at full term to about 18 months.

(locomotion is established, rudimentary in language,
social attachment)

3. Early Childhood – about 18 months to about 6 years.

(language is well established, sex typing, group play,
ends with readiness for schooling)
 Stages in Life Span
Development

4. Late Childhood – about 6 to about 13 years old.
(many cognitive processes become adult except in
speed of operations; team play)

5. Adolescence – about 13 to about 20 years old.

(begins with puberty, ends at maturity, attainment of
highest level of cognition, independence from parents,
sexual relationships)
 Stages in Life Span
Development

6. Young Adulthood – about 20 to 45 years. (career and
family development)

7. Middle Age – about 45 years to about 65 years.

(career reaches highest level, self assessment, ‘empty
nest crisis’, retirement)

8. Old Age – about 65 years to death. (enjoy family

achievements, dependency, widowhood, poor health)
 
LEARNING THEORIES
 PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
by Sigmund Freud

Key Points:

 Id – person’s intellectual drives. It operates on the basis of pleasure

principle.

 Ego – the rational, controlling component of the personality which

tries to satisfy needs through appropriate, socially acceptable
behaviours.

 Super-ego – personality components that is repository of the child’s

internalization of parental or societal values, morals and roles.
 PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
by Sigmund Freud

Psychosexual theory:
“OAPHALAGE”
 ORAL- Center of pleasure in the mouth.
- (1st year life)
 ANAL – reflects the toddler’s need for gratification along the rectal area.
Toilet Training. (2-3 years)
 PHALLIC- concentrates on the pre-schooler's gratification involving the
genitals. (3-6 years)
 LATENCY- sexual desires are repressed and the entire child’s available
libido is channelled into socially accepted activities. (6-12, Puberty)
 GENITAL – Aim of sex instinct is reproduction. (Puberty onwards)
 PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
by Sigmund Freud

 FIXATION - is the tendency to stay at a particular
stage as a result of either frustration or
overindulgence.
 Erogenous Zone – pleasure-giving spot in the body.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF
DEVELOPMENT
by Erik Erikson

1. Trust vs. Mistrust – Birth to 1 year
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt – 1-3 years
3. Initiative vs. Guilt – 3-6 years
4. Industry vs. Inferiority – 6-12 years
5. Identity role vs. Confusion – 13-20 years
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation – 20-40 years
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation – 40-65 years
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair – 65 and beyond
 Stages Ages Maladaptation Malignancy Virtue

Birth to 1 Withdrawn/
Trust vs. Mistrust Gullible Hope
year paronia

Autonomy vs. Shame and

Doubt
1-3 years
Impulsiveness Compulsiven
/Shameless ess
Will

Ruthless/ Purpose and

Initiative vs. Guilt 3-6 years Inhibition
Merciless Direction

Narrow
Industry vs. Inferiority 6-12 years Inertia Competence
Virtuosity

Identity vs. Role Confusion 13-20 years Fanaticism Repudiation Fidelity

Intimacy vs. Isolation 20-40 years Promiscuity Exclusion Love

Generativity vs. Stagnation 40-65 years Overextension Rejectivity Care

65 and
Integrity vs. Despair Presumption Disdain Wisdom
beyond
 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF
DEVELOPMENT
by Erik Erikson

Key Words:

 Eight (8) major stages of

development
 CRISIS
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
by Jean Piaget

Basic Concepts:
 Schema – refers to mental network for
organizing concepts and information.
 Assimilation – the process of making sense of
experiences and perceptions by fitting them into
previously established cognitive structures
(schemata)
 Accommodation – is the process of creating new
schemata.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
by Jean Piaget

Basic Concepts:
 Equilibrium – Achieving a balance
between assimilation and
accommodation.
 Cognitive Disequilibrium – a
discrepancy between what is
perceived and what is understood.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
by Jean Piaget

The Cognitive Periods and Approximate
Ages:
1. The sensorimotor period (birth to 18 to
24 months)
 Object Permanence
- children’s understanding that objects
continue to exist even when they are out of
sight.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
by Jean Piaget

2. Pre-operational Stage (2-7 years)
 Symbolic Function – the ability to
represent objects and events.
 Egocentrism – the tendency to assume
that everyone views in the same way they
do, and that they are, quite literally, the
center of everything.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
by Jean Piaget

 Centration - the tendency to focus on one
perpetual aspect of an event to the
exclusions of others.
 Conservation – realization that certain
properties of an object (ex. Weight and
length) remain the same regardless of
changes in its other properties (ex. Shape
and Position).
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
by Jean Piaget

 Animism – tendency to attribute
life to inert objects.
 Transductive Reasoning – the
child neither reasons deductively
nor inductively.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
by Jean Piaget

3. Concrete Operational Stage
(7 to 11 years)
 Reversibility
 Classification
 Seriation
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
by Jean Piaget

4. The Formal Operation Stage
(over 11 years)
 Hypothetical Reasoning
 Analogical Reasoning
 Deductive Reasoning
 Moral Development Theory
by Lawrence Kohlberg

Level I Pre-Conventional (0-9 years)
Stage 1: Obedience – Punishment
Orientation
 Punishment (2-4)
Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist
Orientation
 Reward (4-9)
 Moral Development Theory
by Lawrence Kohlberg

Level II Conventional (9-20 years)
Stage 3: Good Boy – Nice Girl
Orientation
 Impress people
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation
 Rules
 Moral Development Theory
by Lawrence Kohlberg

Level III Post-Conventional (20
onwards)
Stage 5: Social Contract –
Legislative Orientation

Stage 6: Universal-Ethical Principle

Heinz’s Moral Dilema

In Europe, a woman was near death from a special
kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctor
thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a
druggist in the same town had recently discovered.
The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was
charging ten times what the drug cost him to make.
Heinz’s Moral Dilema

He paid 400 dollars for the radium and charged
4000 dollars for a small dose of the drug. The sick
woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he
knew to borrow the money and tried every legal
means, but he could only get together about 2000
dollars, which is half of what it cost.
Heinz’s Moral Dilema

He told the druggist that his wife was dying and
asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But
the druggist said “No, I discovered the drug and I’m
going to make money from it.” so having tried every
legal means, Heinz gets desperate and consider
breaking into the man’s store to steal the drug for his
wife.
 Stages of Moral Reasoning

1. “No, I wouldn't steal the drug, because I would be
punished. The law says stealing is wrong so it is
wrong.”
2. “No, I wouldn’t steal the drug, because while I want
to save my wife, being punished would be worst
than losing her. I could just get married again.”
 Stages of Moral Reasoning

3. “No, I wouldn’t steal the drug, because people would see me
as a selfish thief who breaks rules just for my own benefit.”
4. “No, I wouldn’t steal the drug, because there is a greater
good to be maintained – rules exist in order to protect all
members of society. If I were to act on my own selfish behalf
and steal, it would set a dangerous precedent with terrible
long term ramifications.”
 Stages of Moral Reasoning

5. “No, I wouldn’t steal the drug, through it would pain me
miserably. I believe the rights of my wife to the drug are valid
but they must be balanced against the rights of the druggist.
Her rights to life are greater. I believe the druggist is acting
immorally, and that he should be implored to sell it cheaper,
but I would stop short of stealing and breaking laws that all
of us have decided to accept as good members of the society.”
 Stages of Moral Reasoning

6. “I would steal the drug, administer it to my wife, and
then myself into the police. I would then demand that
I be punished to the full extent of the law. While
stealing is reprehensible, my ethical principles value
life above property, and therefore, to be true to
myself and to life itself, I must break the lesser law in
order to follow the greater good.”
 Sociohistoric/Sociocultural Theory
by Lev Semanovich Vygotsky

 The child is socially dependent at the
beginning in his thinking through
many experiences with which adults
with older peer help.
 Scaffolding
 Zone of Proximal Development
 Social Cognitive Learning Theory
by Albert Bandura

 Observational Learning or Social
Learning Theory
- Learning by Modelling
Models are classified as:
1. Real Life
2. Symbolic
3. Representational
 Social Cognitive Learning Theory
by Albert Bandura

 Four Phases in Observational
Learning
“ARMM”
1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Motor Reproduction Processes
4. Motivational Processes
Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives


“BC KA DAVE-ANITA
SIMPSON?”
 Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives

 Benjamin Bloom- Cognitive
Domain
 Krathwol - Affective Domain
 Ravindra H. Dave, Anita Harrow
and Elizabeth Jane Simpson -
Psychomotor Domain
 Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives

 Benjamin Bloom- Cognitive Domain
“KCAASE”
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
 Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives

 Krathwol - Affective Domain
“REREVOC”
Receiving
Responding
Valuing
Organization
Characterization
 Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives

 Psychomotor Domain
Dave’s IMPAN:
1. Imitation
2. Manipulation
3. Precision
4. Articulation
5. Naturalization
 Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives

 Psychomotor Domain
Harrow 6 levels
1. Reflex Movements
2. Basic Fundamental Movements
3. Perceptual Abilities
4. Physical Abilities
5. Skilled movements
6. Non-discursive Communication
 Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives

 Psychomotor Domain
Simpson 7 levels
1. Perception
2. Set
3. Guided Response
4. Mechanism
5. Complex Overt Response
6. Adaptation
7. Origination
 Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives

 Mager Method
A- Audience
(ex. The grade 4 students)
B- behaviour
(ex. Will be able to enumerate)
C- Condition
(Given a Philippine Map)
D- Degree
(At least three provinces per region)
 Different Principles of Learning and Their
Application in Classroom Situation
Principle Application in Classroom Situation

1. Learning by doing is more effective

than just sitting and listening.
 Let the students have the feel of things
through the hands-on activities.
2. Concept should be presented in Teachers should be very creative,
varied/different ways resourceful and imaginative in teaching
so as not to make the students as well as
themselves get bored.
3. Learning is aided by formulating and Teaching is a two-way process. It’s not
asking questions. only the teachers who will always do the
talking and asking. Students should be
given the chance to do the same.
4. Effort is put forth when tasks are In giving tasks to students, the teacher
challenging should consider that tasks are not too
difficult nor too easy and simple to do.
5. The principle of readiness is related to The teacher must consider the student’s
the learner’s stage of development and age in presenting certain content and in
their previous learning. expecting certain cognitive processes.
 IPT – Information Processing
Theory

Three Stages:
Encoding – sensed, perceived and Attended
Storage – stored for short or long period
Retrieval – found in the appropriate time, the
true test of effective memory
 Sign Theory/Purposive Behaviorism
by Edward Tolman


Learning is goal-directed or
purposive
The use of Cognitive Map
(learning location), Mnemonics,
Organizers
 Sign Theory/Purposive Behaviorism
by Edward Tolman


Latent Learning – a kind of
learning that remains or stays with
the individual until needed. It can
exist even without reinforcement.
 Multiple Intelligences
by Howard Gardner

 Musical–rhythmic and harmonic – Music Smart
 Visual–spatial – Picture Smart
 Verbal–linguistic – Word Smart
 Logical–mathematical – Number Smart
 Bodily–kinesthetic – Body Smart
 Interpersonal – People Smart
 Intrapersonal – Self Smart (Metacognition)
 Naturalistic – Nature Smart
 Existentialist – Spirit Smart

 
“ The closer you are to the base, the
more direct the learning experience
becomes. “
Hierarchy of Needs
by Abraham Maslow

 
Behavioural Learning
Theories or Associative
Learning Theories
 Behavioural Theory (Behaviourism)
by John B. Watson

 Development does not proceed
through a series of stages; it is a
continuous process marked by the
gradual acquisition of new and more
sophisticated behavioural patterns or
habits.
 Behaviours are learned.
 Classical Conditioning
by Ivan Pavlov

“EDGe”
Extinction – the process by which a conditioned
response is lost.
Discrimination – A process by which one learns not to
respond to similar stimuli in an identical manner
because of previews experiences.
Generalization – A process by which the conditioned
response transfers to other stimuli that are similar to
the original conditioned stimulus.
 Operant Conditioning
by Burrhus Skinner

 Reinforcement
Positive and Negative Reinforcement
 Schedules of Reinforcement
1. Continuous – every time it occurs.
2. Intermittent – every now and then.
3. Ratio – After a set of response.
4. Interval – after the first response made following
predetermined period of elapsed time.
 Theory of Connectionism
by EdwardThorndike
 Law of Readiness
 Law of Exercise
 Law of Effect
 Ecological Theory
by Brofenbrenner

Macrosystem (outermost layer)
- (cultural context) contains the values and
beliefs of the culture in which a child is
growing up.
ex. A society’s beliefs about the
importance of education exist in the cultural
context.
 Ecological Theory
by Brofenbrenner

 Exosystem
- (socio-economic context) are the cultural
institutions which have indirect influence to the
child’s development.
ex. Institutions acknowledge that it is the duty of
government to provide basic services (cultural
context) but the inability of the government to
provide its citizens the basic services is hampered by
the economic slowdown and budget deficits (socio-
economic context).
 Ecological Theory
by Brofenbrenner

Microsystem
- (immediate context) includes those units
that have directly influence on the children.
ex. Families, schools, religious institutions,
and neighbourhoods.
 Ecological Theory
by Brofenbrenner

Mesosystem
- consists of the interconnections between
these components.
ex. The specific schools a child attends and
her own family are part of the microsystem.
The parents involvement in the school and
the response of the school to their
involvement are part of the mesosystem.
 Ecological Theory
by Brofenbrenner

Mesosystem
- consists of the interconnections between
these components.
ex. Thus, the culture a child is born into
may strongly value quality education.
Moreover, the nation’s economy may provide
ample funds for schooling.
 Ecological Theory
by Brofenbrenner

Mesosystem
- consists of the interconnections between
these components.
ex. However, her own education will be
more strongly affected by the particular
school she attends and the connections or
lack thereof, between her school and her
family.
 Ecological Theory
by Brofenbrenner

Mesosystem
- consists of the interconnections between
these components.
ex. Thus, the child’s immediate context
may be either consistent with the cultural
and socio-economic contexts or at odds with
them.
 Ecological Theory
by Brofenbrenner


Development is a complex of individuals and

contextual variables and that development is
a result of the combined effects of all
contexts.
Cognitive Learning
Theories

 Field Theory
by Kurt Lewin

 View- focus on the psychological field or life space
of an individual.
 Life space concept – It is not possible to draw
conclusions simply by observing overt behavior. To
understand behavior it is often essential to be
“subjective” in the sense that the observer must see
things from the subject’s point of view at a given
moment.
 Problem Solving Theory
by Wolfgang Kohler

 Insight is the capacity to discern the true nature of the
situation.
 Imaginative power to see into and understand immediately.
 Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analyzing
and restructuring perceptions until a solution is arrived.
 The more intelligent a person and more experience he has,
the more capable he will be for gaining insight.
 His studies about apes led him to conclude that learning
was a result of insightful solutions, not blind trial and error.
 Meaningful Learning Theory
by David Ausubel

Meaningful learning is the acquisition
of the new meaning.
Meaningful learning occurs when the
material to be learned is related to what
students already know.
 Meaningful Learning Theory
by David Ausubel

Two Dimension of Learning Processes:
(First Dimension)
a. Meaningful Reception Learning
- new logically organized material is presented
in final form and the learner relates it to his
existing knowledge.
b. Rote Reception Learning – material in any
kind is presented in final form and memorized.
 Meaningful Learning Theory
by David Ausubel

(Second Dimension)
a. Meaningful Discovery Learning – Learner
arrives at the solution to a problem or other
outcome independently and relate it to his
existing knowledge.
b. Rote Discovery Learning - the solution is
arrived at independently but is committed to
memory.
 Theory of Instruction
by Jerome Brunner

Instrumental Conceptualism - the
acquisition of knowledge, whatever its form
is dynamic interactive process. A learner is a
purposive participant in the knowledge
getting process who selects, structures,
retains, and transforms information.
 Theory of Instruction
by Jerome Brunner

 3 Simultaneous processes of Cognitive Process:
1. Acquisition – process of obtaining information
that can either replace or refine something
previously known.
2. Transformation – manipulation of information
to fit new situation.
3. Evaluation – checking on whether or not the
learned material has been manipulated
appropriately.
 3 Ways to Represent Knowledge

Enactive Representation- at the
earliest ages, children learn about the
world through actions on physical
objects and the outcomes of these
actions.
 3 Ways to Represent Knowledge

Iconic Representation- in this stage,
learning can be obtained through using
models and pictures.
 3 Ways to Represent Knowledge

Symbolic Representation- the learner
has the ability to think in abstract
terms. This uses symbol system to
encode knowledge such as language
and mathematical notation.
 Right-Left Brain Continuum

Left-Analytic Learner Right-Global Learner
•Tree Seer •Forest Seer
•Verbal •Visual
•Respond to word meaning •Respond to tone of voice
•Sequential •Random
•Process information Linearly •Varied order
•Respond to logic •Respond to emotion
•Plans ahead •Impulsive
•Speaks few gestures •Gestures when speaking
•Punctual •Less punctual
•Formal Study •With sound/music
 Learners with Exeptionalities

Disability – a measurable impairment or
limitation that interferes with the person’s
ability.

Handicapped – disadvantage that occurs as a

result of a disability or impairment.
 Learners with Exeptionalities

Giftedness – Performing at a remarkably
high level of accomplishment in comparison
to others of similar age, experience, and/or
environment.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder or

ADHD – Difficulty in focusing and
maintaining attention.
 Learners with Exeptionalities

 Mental Retardation – Characterized by significantly
impaired cognitive functions. It is mostly categorized
by an IQ below 70.

 Autism – A neurodevelopmental disorder

characterized by impaired social interaction, verbal
and non-verbal communication, restricted and
repetitive behavior.
 Learners with Exceptionalities

Asperger’s Syndrome – Same with autism
except there are no language or cognitive
delays.

Down Syndrome – Is a chromosomal

condition caused by the presence of all or
part of a third copy of chromosome 21.
 Types of Learning Disablities

Dyslexia – Reading Disability

Dyscalculia – Disability in number

operations.

Dysgraphia – Disability in writing

 Parenting Styles (NAIA)

 Neglectful – characterized by little warmth,
nurturing & supervision (Uninvolved).
 Authoritative – stresses self-reliance and
independence.
 Indulgent – show of affection, love, warmth but with
little supervision (Permissive).
 Authoritarian – obedience respect of authority &
traditional values.
 
END