MATHEMATICS IN

THE MODERN
WORLD
MODULE #
Topics:

A. Measures of Central Tendency

B. Measures of Dispersion
C. Measures of Relative Position
D. Normal Distribution
E. Linear Regression and Correlation

Statistics - involves the collection, organization, summarization,

presentation, and interpretation of data. The branch is statistics that
involves the collection, organization, summarization, and presentation of
data is called descriptive statistics. The branch that interprets and draws
conclusions from the data is called inferential statistics.
 A. Measures of Central Tendency

One of the most basic statistical concepts involves finding measures

central
of tendency of a set of numerical It is often helpful to
numerical
data. center of a set of data.
values that locate, is some sense, thefind
Arithmetic mean (Ⴟ) - is the most commonly used measure of
central
tendency. The arithmetic mean of a set of numbers is often referred to
as simply the mean. To find the mean for a set of data, find the sum of
the data values
Σ X and where:
divide by
Σ Xthe number
is the sum of data values.
the data values
Ⴟ= n is the number of data values
n Ⴟ is the mean of the set of data
values
 In statistics it is often necessary to find the sum of a set of numbers.
The traditional symbol used to indicate a summation is the Greek letter
sigma, Σ. Thus the notation Σ X , called summation notation, denotes
the sum of all the numbers in a given set.

Sample Problem: A doctor ordered 4 separate blood tests to

measure a patient’s total blood cholesterol levels. The test results were:
245, 235, 220, and 210

ΣႿ 245 + 235+ 220 + 210

Ⴟ= = = 227.5
n 4
1. The Median (Md) - in the middle number or the mean of the
two middle numbers in a list of numbers tha have been
arranged in numerical order from smallest to largest or largest to
smallest. Any list of numbers that is arranged in numerical order is
a ranked list.
The
- themedian
middle of a ranked
number If nlist of n numbers is:
is odd.
- the mean of the two middle numbers if n is even.

Example: Find the median of the data in the following

lists:
a) 4, 8, 1, 14, 9, 21, 12
Solution: a) The list 4, 8, 1, 14, 9, 21, 12 contains 7 numbers. The median of
a list with an odd number of entries is found by ranking the numbers and
finding the middle number. Ranking the numbers from smallest to largest
gives
1, 4, 8, 9, 12, 14, 21
The middle number is 9. Thus 9 is the median.

b) The list 46, 23, 92, 89, 77, 108 contains 6 numbers. The median of
a list of data with an even number of entries is found by ranking the numbers
and computing the mean of the two middle numbers, Ranking he numbers
from smallest to largest gives
23, 46, 77, 89, 92, 108n The two middle numbers are 77
and 89. The
1. The Mode (Mo) - in the number that occurs most frequently
in a list of numbers.
Some lists of numbers do not have a mode. For instance,
in the list 1, 6, 8, 10, 32, 15, 49, each number occurs exactly
once. Because no number occurs more often than the other
numbers, there is no mode.
A list of numerical data can have more than one mode.
For instance, in the list 4, 2, 6, 2, 7, 9, 2, 9, 8, 9, 7, the
numbers 2 and 9 each occurs three in the list. The rest of
the numbers occurs less than three times. Thus 2 and 9 are
both modes for the data.
The Weighted Mean (WM)

A value called the weighted mean is often used when some data values are
more important than others. For instance, many professors determine the student’s course
grade from the student’s tests and the final examination. Consider the situation in
which a professor counts the final examination score as 2 test scores. To find the
weighted mean of the student’s scores, the professor first assigns a weight to each
score. In this case the professor could assign each of the test scores a weight of 1 and the
final examination score a weight of 2. A student with test scores of 65, 70, and 75 and a
final examination score of 90 has a weighted mean of

(65 x 1) + (70 x + (75 x 1) + (90 x 2)

1) 390
= =78
1+ 1+ 1+ 5
2
 The procedure for finding the weighted mean can be
generalized as follows:
The weighted mean of the n numbers x1, x2,
x3, … , xn with the respective assigned weights w1, w2, w3,
… , wn is Σ(x.w)
WM = where: Σ ( x . w) is the sum of the pro-
Σw
ducts formed by multiplying each number by its assigned weight, and
Σ w is the sum of all the weights.
Problem: The table 1 belowshows Rocky’ssemestralgrades. Use the
weighted mean formula to find Rocky’s grade point average (GPA).
 Table
Subject 1 Grade No. of Units
English 82 3
History 87 3
Chemistry 78 4
Mathematics 75 5
Total 15

(82 x3) + (87 x 3) + (78 x 4) + (75 x 119

WM 5) = 4 =
= 3+ 3+ 4+ 1 796
5 5
Find the Mean of Data Displayed in a Frequency
Distribution

The formula for a weighted mean can be used

to find the mean ofthe data in a frequency
distribution. The only change is that the weights w1,
w2, w3, …wn are replaced with the frequencies f1, f2,
f3, … fn Sample Problem: Find the mean of the data
shown in the table 2 below:
 Table 2
Observed Event Frequency
Number of Laptop computers Number of Households, f, with x laptop computers
(x)
0 5
1 12
2 14
3 3
4 2
5 3
6 0
7 1
> f = 40

Σ (x . (0 . 5)+(1 . 12)+( 2 . 14)+(3 . 3)+(4 . 2)+(5 . 3)+(6 . 0)+(7 .

WM f) = 1)
= Σf 4
79 0
= = 1.975
40
The mean number of laptop computers per household or the homes in the subdivision is
1.975.
 B. Measures of Dispersion or
Variation
1. The Range
(R)
In the preceding section the three types of average
values for a data set are introduced - the mean, tke median,
and the mode. Some characteristics of a set of data may not
be evident from an examination of averages. For instance,
consider a soft- drink dispensing machine that should
dispense 8 oz. of your selection into a cup. The following
table shows data for two of these machines:
 Table
Machine 1 3 Machine 2
9.52 8.01
6.41 7.99
10.07 7.95
5.85 8.03
8.15 8.02
Ⴟ = 8.0 Ⴟ = 8.0
 The mean data value for each machine is 8
oz. However, look at the variation in data values
for Machine 1. The quantity of soda dispensed is
very inconsistent - in some cases the soda
overflows the cup, and in other cases too
little soda is dispensed. The machine
obviously needs adjustment. Machine 2, on
the other hand, is working just fine. The
quantity dispensed is very consistent, with little
This example shows that average values do not reflect the
spread or dispersion of data. To measure the spread or dispersion
of data, we must introduce statistical values known as the
range and the standard deviation.
The range of a set of data values is the difference between
the greatest data value and the least data value.

Example:Find the range of the numberof ouncesdispensedby

Machine 1 in the above table.
Solution: The greatest number of ounces dispensed by Machine 1
is
10.07and the least is 5.85. The range of the numbers of ounces
2. The Standard Deviation
(s) The range of a set of data is easy to compute, but it an be
deceiving. The range is a measure that depends only on the two
most extreme values, and as such it is very sensitive. A
measure of dispersion that is less sensitive to extreme values is
the standard deviation. The standard deviation of a set of
numerical data makes use of the amount by which each individual
data value deviates from the mean. These deviations, represented by
( x - Ⴟ), are positive when the data value x is greater than the mean
Ⴟ and are negative when x is less than the mean Ⴟ
The sum of all the deviations ( x -Ⴟ ) is zero for all sets of data.
This is shown in the following table for the Machine 2 data of the
preceding table.
 Table 4
x X-Ⴟ
8.01 8.01 - 8 = 0.01
7.99 7.99 - 8 = -0.01
7.95 7.05 - 8 = -0.05
8.03 8.03 - 8 = 0.o3
8.02 8.02 - 8 = 0.02

Sum of deviations = 0.00

Because the sum of all the deviations of the data values from
the mean is always 0, we cannot use the sum of the deviations
as a measure of dispersion for a set of data. Instead, the
standard deviation uses the sum of the squares of the deviations.
Standard Deviations for Populations and
Samples
If x1, x2, x3, … xn is a population of n numbers
with a mean μ, then the standard deviation of the
population is

δ= Σ
C. Measures of Relative Position
Z-Scores
The number of standard deviations between a data value and the mean is known as
the data value’s z-score or standard score.
The z-score for a given data value x is the number of standard deviations that x is
above
or below the mean of the data. The following formulas show how to calculate the z-
score for a datazvalue
Population: x= x in a population
for a dataSample: zx = and in a sample.
δ X-μ s x-Ⴟ
Example: Raul has taken two tests in his chemistry class. He scored 72 on the first
test, for which the mean of all scores was 65 and the standard deviation was
8. He received a 60 on a second test, for which the mean of all scores was 45
and the standard deviation was 12. In comparison to the other students, did Raul
do better on the first test or in the second test?
Given: x1 = 72, Ⴟ1 =
65, s1 = 8 X2 = 60,
= 45,
Reqd: zႿ1 2and s2 =
z2Soln: 12
x1 - Ⴟ1

72 -
65
Z12 = = = =
S2
0.875 S1 1.25
8
 Raul scored 0.875 standard deviation above the mean
on the first test and 1.25 standard deviations above the
mean on the second test. These z-scores indicate
that, in comparison to his classmates, Raul scored
better on the second test than he did on the first test.
X-Ⴟ
The z-score equation zx =
s
involves 4 variables. If the values of any three of the 4
variables are known, you can solve for the unknown
variable.
Problem: A consumer group tested a sample of 100 light bulbs. If found that
the mean life expectancy of the bulbs was 842 h, with a standard deviation
of 90. One particular light bulb from the Dura Bright company had a
score of 1.2. What was the life span of this light bulb?
Given: z = 1.2, s = 90, Ⴟ = 842
Reqd: x
X-Ⴟ
Soln: z= derive the equation for x from the z-
formula S

X = zs + Ⴟ
= 1.2 (90) + 842
= 108 + 842
= 950 (The light bulb had a life span of 950 hours.)
2. Percentiles

Most standardizedexaminationsprovide scores in terms of

percentiles,
which are defined as follows:

pth Percentile - A value x is called pth percentile of a data set provided p%

of the values are less than x.

Pp74,480.InIf atherecent
Example: 90th percentilefor
year the medianthe annual
annualsalary of for janitor
salary was
a janitor
a 105,900, find the percent of janitors whose annual salary
was Pp
was
a. More than Pp 74,480
b. Less than Pp 105,900
 Solution
a: . By definition, the median is the 50th percentile. Therefore, 50% of the
janitors earned more than Pp 74,480 per year.

b. Because Pp 105,900 is the 90th percentile, 90% of all janitors made less
than Pp 105,900.
c. From partsa and b, 90% - 50% = 40% of the janitosearned
between Pp 74,480 and Pp 105,900.

The following formula can be used to find the percentile that corresponds
to a particular data value in a set of data. Given a set of data and a data value
x,
Number of data values less than x
Percentile of score x = x 100
Problem: On a reading examination given to 900
students, Keith’s score was higher than the scores of 576 of
the students who took the examination. What is the
percentile for Keith’s score?
Number of data values less than x
Solution: Percentile = x
100
Total number og data values
576
= x 100 = 64
900
3.
The three numbers Q1, Q2, and Q3 that partition a ranked data set into four
Quartiles
(approximately) equal groups are called the quartiles of the data. Foe instance, for the
data set below, the values Q1 = 11, Q2 = 29, Q3 = 104 are the quartiles of the data.

2, 5, 5, 8, 11, 12, 19, 22, 23, 29, 31, 45, 83, 91, 104, 159, 181, 312, 354
↑ ↑ ↑
Q1 Q2 Q
3

The quartile Q1 is called the first quartile. The quartile Q2 is called the second
quartile. The quartile Q3 is called the third quartile. The following method of finding
quartiles makes use of medians
Step 1. Rank the data in increasing order
Step 2. Find the median of the data
Step 3. The first quartile, Q1, is the median of the data values less than
Q2. The third quartile, Q3, is the median of the data values greater than Q2.
Problem: The following data values represent the calories per 100 mi of 25 popular
sodas Find the quartiles for the data.
43, 37, 42, 40, 53, 62, 36, 32, 50, 49
26, 53, 73, 48, 45, 39, 45, 48, 40, 56
41, 36, 58, 42, 39
Solution:
Step 1. Rank the data in the order of increasing magnitude as shown in the following
table:
1) 26 Table
10) 41 5 19) 32
2) 32 11) 43 20) 53
3) 36 12) 42 21) 53
4) 36 13) 43 22) 56
5) 37 14) 45 23) 58
6) 39 15) 45 24) 62
7) 39 16) 48 25) 73
8) 40 17) 48
9) 40 18) 49
Step 2. The median of these 25 data values has a rank of 13. Thus
the median is 43. The second quartile Q1 is the median of the data,
so Q2 = 43.
Step 3. There are 12 data values less than the median and 12 data
values greater than the median. The first quartile is the median of
the data values less than the median. Thus Q1 is the mean of the data
ranks
valuesof 6 and 7.
with

Q1 = (39 + 39 ) ÷ 2 = 39

The third quartile is the median of the data values greater than
the median. Thus Q3 is the mean of the data values with ranks of 19
and
4. Box-and Whisker Plots

A box-and-whisker plot
(sometimes called a box plot) is often used
to provide a visual summary of a set of
data. A box-and - whisker plot shows the
median, the first and third quartiles, and
the minimum and maximum values of a
Box-and- whisker Plot
Diagram Construction
Step 1. Draw a horizontalscale that extends from the
minimum data value to the maximum data value.
Step 2. Above the scale, draw a rectangle (box) with
its left side at Q1 and its right side at Q3.
Step 3. Draw a vertical line segment across
the rectangle at the median, Q3.
Step 4. Draw a horizontal line segment, called
a whisker, that extends from Q1 to the minimum
and another whisker that extends from Q3
Problem:. Construct a box-and whisker plot for the data set in Table 5
(refer to the problem):
Solution: For the data set in the preceding sample problem, we
determined that Q1 = 39, Q2 = 43, and Q3 - 51.5. The minimum data
value is 26, and the maximum data value is 73. Thus the box-and-
whisker plot is shown below:
Q1 Q2 Q3

│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
20 30 40 50 60 70
80
5. Stem- and- Leaf
Diagram
The relative position of ach data value in a small
set of data can be graphically displayed by using a stem-and-leaf
diagram.
For instance, consider the following history test scores:
65, 72,96, 86, 43, 61,75, 86, 49, 68, 98, 74, 84, 78, 85, 75, 86,
73
Table 6
A stem-and-leaf diagram
Stems of a set of History test scores Leaves
4 3, 9
5
6 1, 5, 8
7 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 8
8 4, 5, 6, 6, 6
9 6, 8

Legend: 8/6 represents

86
 In the stem-and-leaf diagram above we have organized
the history test scores by placing all of the scores that are
in the 40’s in yhr top row, the scores that are in the 50s in
the second row, the scores that are in the 60s in the third
row, and so on. The tens digits of the scores have been
placed to the left of the vertical line. In this diagram, they
are referred to as stems. The ones digits of the test scores
have been placed in the proper row to the right of the
vertical line.. In this diagram, they are the leaves. It is now
easy to make observations about the distribution of the
scores. Only two of the scores are in the 90s. Six of the scores
are in the 70s and none of the scores are in the 50s.
 Steps in Construction of a Stem-and
Leaf Diagram
1.Determine the stems and list them in a
column from smallest to largestor largest
to smallest.
2. List the remaining digit of each stem as a leaf
to the right of the stem.
3. Include a legend that explainsthe meaning
of the stems and leaves. Include a little title for
 Sometimes two sets of data can be compared by using
baack-to- stem-and leaf diagram. Leaves from
back set are one
data displayed to the right of the stems,
and leaves from the other set are displayed to the
left. For instance, the back-to-back stem-and-leaf
diagram below shows the test scores for two classes
that took the same test. It is easy to see that the 8
A.M. class did better on the test because it had more
scores in the 80s and 90s and fewer scores in the 40s,
50s, and 60s. The number of scores in the 70s was the
 Table 7
Biology Test
8 A.M. Class Scores 10 A.M. Class
2 4 58
7 5 6799
58 6 2348
1233378 7 1335568
44556889 8 23666
24558 9 45

Legend: 3/7 Legend: 8/2

Represents represents
73 82
 D. Normal Distributions
( Frequency Distribution and
Histograms)
Large sets of data are often displayed using a or a
histogram. For instance, consider the following situation.
An internet service provider (ISP) has installed new
computers. To estimate the new download times its
subscribers will experience, the ISP surveyed 1000 of
its subscribers to download a particular file from an
Internet site. The results of that survey are summarized in
the ff. Table:
Table 8. A Grouped Frequency Distribution with 12 Classes
Download time Number Relative
(In seconds) of Frequency
Subscriber (%)
s
0 -5 6 0.6
5 - 10 17 1.7
10.15 43 4.3
15 -20 92 9.2
20 - 25 151\ 15.1
25 - 30 192 19.2
30 - 35 190 19.0
35 - 40 140 14.9
40 - 45 90 9.0
45 - 50 45 4.5
50 - 55 15 1.5
55 - 60 10 1.0
Table 6 above is called a grouped
frquency
distribution. It shows how often (frequently)
events
certain occurred. Each interval, 0- 5, 5 - 10, and so
on, is called a class. This distribution has 12
classes. For the 10 -15 class, 10 is the lower class
boundary and 15 is the upper class boundary A ny
data value that lies on a coomon boundary is
assigned to the higher class. The type of frequency
distribution that ilsts the percent of data in each
class is called relative frequency distribution.
 Normal Distribution and the Empirical Rule
A normal distribution forms a bell-shaped
curve that is symmetric about a vertical line through the
mean of the data..
Properties of a Normal Distribution
1. The graph is symmetric about a vertical lie through the mean
of the distribution
2. The mean, median, and mode are equal.
3. The y-value of each point on the curve is the percent
(expressed as a decimal) of the data of the corresponding x-
value.
4. Areas underthe curvethat are symmetric about the mean
Empirical Rule for a Normal
In a normal distribution, approximately
Distribution
1.68.26% of the data lie within 1
standard deviation of the mean
2.95.46% of the data lie within 2
standard deviations from the mean
3.99.72% of the data lie within 3
standard deviations of the mean
The Standard Normal
Distribution
It is often helpful to convert data values x to z-scores by
using the formulas:x -μ x - Ⴟ
Zx = (for population) zx
= (for sample)
δ s

If the original distribution of x values is a normal

distribution, then the corresponding distribution of z - scores
will also be a normal distribution. This normal distribution of
z-scores is called standard normal distribution. It has a mean of
0 and a standard deviation of 1.
Problems: