Chapter 5

The early Philosophers and

By :GROUP 4
 THE EARLY PHILOSOPERS
•While moral theory does not invent morality,
or even reflection on it, it does try to bring
systematic thinking to bear on the
phenomenon. Ancient moral theory, however,
does not attempt to be a comprehensive
account to all the phenomena that fall under
the heading of morality.
 Aristotle’s Ethics
•Aristotle’s works specifically concern
morality, the eudemonian Ethics, it focuses
happiness (eudaimonia), or the good man,
and how to obtain it.
Aristotle’s ‘Telos’
•A ‘telos’ is an end or purpose. Aristotle
believes that the essence or essential nature
of beings, including humans, lay not at their
cause (or beginning) but their end(‘telos’).
Happiness and Virtues
•Human goal is self-realization. This entails
achieving one’s natural purpose by
functioning or living consistently with
human nature. Accomplishing it, in turn,
produces happiness; whereas inability to
realize it leads to sadness, frustration, and
ultimately to poor life.
Virtue as Habit
•Aristotle’s idea of happiness should also be
understood in the sense of human
flourishing. This flourishing is attained by
the habitual practice of moral and
intellectual excellences, or ‘ virtues ’.
Virtues and the Golden Mean
•Refers to an excellence of moral or
intellectual character.
•Aristotle distinguishes two kinds of virtue.
•Virtue of intellect and Moral virtue.
Virtue of intellect
•Traits that aim at things like truth,
knowledge, understanding, and wisdom.
•The intellectually virtuous person desires
these things, is motivated to achieve them,
and has the qualities that enable her to do so
reliably.
Moral virtue
•For Aristotle moral virtue follow from our
nature as rational beings-they are the traits or
characteristics that enable us to act according
to reason.
•Acting in a reasonable manner is done when
we choose to and indeed act in a way that
neither goes to excess nor defect.
Phronesis’ and Practice
• In using the golden mean to become virtuous, we
must recognize not only that the mean is neither
too much nor too little but also it is ‘relative to us’
as moral agent.
• The phronesis, the intellectual virtue of practical
wisdom, is kind of moral knowledge which guides
us to what is appropriate in conjunction with moral
 Thomas Aquinas’ Ethics
•Aquinas believes that all actions are direct
towards ends and that happiness is the final
end.
•Happiness consists in activities in
accordance with virtue.
The natural law
• By the term ‘law’, he means an ordinance of
reason for the common good, promulgated by
someone who has care of the community. In
terms of “rules and measures” for people’s
conduct and as “rational pattens or forms”.
Obedience to the law is thus viewed also as
participating in or being in conformity with the
 4 primary types of law
•Eternal law-refers to the rational plan of God.
•Natural law-is the aspect of the eternal la
which is accessible to human reason, the law
or order to which people are subject by their
nature ordering them to do good and avoid
evil.
• Human law-refers to the positive laws. For
natural law to be adhered to, more exact and
forceful provisions of human law are helpful.
• Devine law- It is a law of revelation,
disclosed through sacred text or scriptures
and church which is also directed toward
man’s eternal end.
Features of human Actions
•Aquinas evaluates human actions on the
basis not only of their conformity to the
natural law but also to their specific feature.
•Species, Accident, and End.
Species
•Refers to its kind. It is also called the object
of the human deeds may be divided in
kinds, some of which are good, some are
bad, and some indifferent or neutral.
Accidents
•Refers to the circumstances surrounding the
action.

End
•Stands for the agent’s intention. An act
might be unjust through it intention.
 Kant’s Ethics
•Kant categorically rejects that ethical
judgments are based on feelings. For him,
feelings even serve as obstructions to our
discernment of right and wrong. His ethical
theory instead bases moral judgements on
reason alone. Reason, for him, is what
deems an action.
Good will
•Kant believes that when we wish to
determine the moral status of an action, we
consult reason. An act either accords with
reason or it does not. If it accords with
reason, we must do it, if not, we must avoid
it.
 The categorical Imperatives and
Utilitarianism
• Categorical imperatives- Kant’s emphasis on
the ethical relevance of good will and acting
from a sense of duty. But we may ask Kant,
“can a person know what his duty is in a given
situation?” “is there a test to find out what one’s
duty is in particular set of circumstances?”
Utilitarianism
• From the Latin term utilis which means ‘useful’,
basically states that what is useful is good, and that
the moral value of actions are determined by the
utility of its consequences.
A teleological ethical system judges the rightness of
an act in terms of an external goal or purpose.(but
not all teleological theories are consequentialist)
 The principle of utilitarianism
•Act Utilitarianism- applied directly to every
alternative act in a situation of choice. The
right act is then defined as the one which
brings about the best results, or, the least
amount of bad result.
• Rule Utilitarianism- on the other hand , the
principle of utility is used to decide the validity of
rules of conduct (moral standards or principles). A
moral rule such as promise-keeping is stablished
by evaluating the consequences of the world in
which people broke promises at will and a world in
which promises were binding. Moral and immoral
are then defined as following or breaking those
rules.
Thak you!!