Module 3
MODERN CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS
3.3 Rheology - Time-Dependent Material Response, Rheological Models,
Rheological Behaviour of Liquids, Thixotropy;
3.4 Thermal properties - Heat Capacity, Thermal Expansion, Thermal
Stresses, Thermal Conductivity
By: Marina James
RHEOLOGY
◘ Rheology is defined as the scientific study of the flow and deformation of matter. It is normally
applied to fluid materials.
◘ It deals with how materials respond to applied forces, such as stress, strain, pressure, and shear,
and how they exhibit behaviors like viscosity, elasticity, and plasticity.
◘ When measuring the rheological properties of substances, it is crucial to consider the three factors
that most significantly impact flow or deformation: internal structure, external forces, and
environmental conditions (e.g temperature).
Applications
☻food processing (for optimizing the texture of products like sauces and creams),
☻pharmaceuticals (for drug formulation),
☻cosmetics (for developing creams and lotions),
☻materials science (for designing materials with specific mechanical properties).
☻quality control and product development
☻It is also essential in fields like geology and petroleum engineering to understand the behavior
of substances like magma and crude oil.
Time-Dependent Material Response
Time-dependent material response refers to the behavior of materials under
the influence of time-dependent factors, such as applied loads, temperature
changes, and environmental conditions.
Types of time-dependent material response:
1. Creep is the deformation of a material under sustained load over time. It is
a common problem in materials used at elevated temperatures such as turbine
blades in jet engines and high temperature pipelines.
2. Relaxation is the decrease in stress in a material over time under constant
strain. For eg. A bolt in a bridge may slowly relax over time, which can allow
the bridge to loosen and become unsafe.
3. Elastic Response is instantaneous deformation and completely recoverable when the applied
load is removed.
4. Plastic Response is the permanent change in shape or size of a material under the influence
of applied stress.
5. Viscoelastic Response refers to the behavior of materials that exhibit both elastic and viscous
properties over time. In other words, these materials can deform under applied stress but also
show a time-dependent recovery. Viscoelasticity is a critical consideration in the design of
products and structures, such as vehicle suspension systems, biomedical devices, and polymer
components, where materials need to withstand various mechanical loads over time.
Examples :
A metal spring will slowly deform under a constant load over time,
A concrete beam will slowly sag under its own weight over time due to creep,
A plastic toy will become more brittle and susceptible to cracking over time,
A rubber band will become less stretchy and more likely to break over time.
6. Viscoplasticity describes the rate-dependent inelastic behavior of solids. Rate-dependence in
this context means that the deformation of the material depends on the rate at which loads are
applied. The inelastic behavior means that the material undergoes unrecoverable deformations
when a load level is reached.
Understanding the time-dependent behavior of materials is essential for predicting their long-
term performance and durability.
Rheological Models
Rheological models are mathematical descriptions or equations used to characterize and predict
the flow and deformation behavior of materials.
1. Newtonian Model:
It describes the behavior of fluids whose viscosity does not change with the shear rate. .
τ = η * du/dy
Where τ is shear stress, η (eta) is dynamic viscosity, and du/dy is the shear rate.
Advantages
• It is simple and easy to understand.
• It is accurate for many common fluids.
• It is computationally efficient, which means that it can be used to solve complex problems
quickly and accurately.
Disadvantages
• It is only accurate for Newtonian fluids.
• It does not take into account the effects of turbulence or other complex phenomena.
• It can be computationally expensive to solve for complex problems.
2. Power-Law Model (Ostwald–de Waele Model):
It describes materials that exhibit non-Newtonian behavior with shear-thinning or shear-thickening
properties.
τ = K * (du/dy)^n
where τ is shear stress, K is a consistency index, du/dy is the shear rate, and n is the flow behavior
index.
Advantages
• They are versatile and can be used to model a wide range of systems.
• They can be used to make predictions about the future behavior of systems.
Used for a wide range of non-Newtonian fluids, such as polymers, slurries, and certain food products.
Disadvantages
• They are only valid over a certain range of values for the independent variable.
• They do not take into account the effects of other variables that may influence the relationship.
• They can be difficult to fit to data.
3. Bingham Plastic Model:
It describes the behavior of fluids that exhibit both viscous and plastic behavior. Represents
materials that behave like a solid until a certain critical stress (yield stress) is exceeded, beyond
which they flow like a Newtonian fluid with a constant viscosity.
τ = τ_yield + η * du/dy
where τ is shear stress, τ_yield is the yield stress, η is dynamic viscosity, and du/dy is the shear
rate.
Applications
• Food processing engineers use it to design equipment for transporting and processing food
products, such as ketchup and mayonnaise.
• Oil drilling engineers use it to design drilling muds that can effectively carry cuttings out of
the wellbore and prevent the well from collapsing.
• Construction engineers use them to design concrete mixes that can be easily poured and
placed.
4. Herschel-Bulkley model:
This model is similar to the Bingham plastic model, but it also includes a power law term. This
makes it more versatile than the Bingham plastic model, and it can be used to describe the flow
behavior of a wider range of fluids.
5. Casson model:
This model is also similar to the Bingham plastic model, but it uses a different equation to
describe the yield stress. The Casson model is often used to describe the flow behavior of food
products.
6. Maxwell Model:
It describes viscoelastic behavior, where a material has both elastic (spring-like) and viscous
(dashpot-like) properties. It can be used to model transient responses.
τ = η * du/dt + η_v * u
where τ is shear stress, η is dynamic viscosity, du/dt is the rate of change of shear rate, η_v is the
viscous damping coefficient, and u is the deformation.
Suitable for describing viscoelastic materials like polymers and biological tissues.
6. Kelvin-Voigt Model (Maxwell-Kelvin Model):
Another viscoelastic model that combines a spring (elastic component) and dashpot (viscous
component) in parallel. It provides a different perspective on viscoelastic behavior.
τ = η * du/dt + E * ε, where τ is shear stress, η is dynamic viscosity, du/dt is the rate of change
of shear rate, E is Young's modulus (elastic modulus), and ε is the strain.
Used to model viscoelasticity in various materials, including polymers and rubber.
examples of rheological models
◦ Engineering: Rheological models are used to design a wide range of engineering products, such
as aircraft, bridges, and power plants. By understanding how materials flow and deform under
different loading conditions, engineers can design products that are safe and reliable.
• Food science: Rheological models are used to design food products with the desired texture and
mouthfeel. For example, rheological models can be used to design ice cream that is smooth and
creamy, or to design yogurt that is thick and creamy.
• Materials science: Rheological models are used to understand the behavior of materials in a
variety of applications. For example, rheological models can be used to understand the flow of
lava during a volcanic eruption, or to understand the deformation of rocks in the Earth's crust.
◦ Rheological models are a powerful tool for understanding and predicting the flow and
deformation behavior of materials. They are used in a wide variety of fields, and they are
essential for designing safe, reliable, and high-performance products.
Rheological models provide valuable insights into material behavior and help in product development,
process optimization, and quality control across a wide range of industries, including manufacturing, food
processing, pharmaceuticals, and materials science.
Rheological Behaviour of Liquids
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. The higher the viscosity of a fluid, the
more resistance it has to flow.
Elasticity is a measure of a fluid's ability to return to its original shape after being deformed.
The higher the elasticity of a fluid, the more it will resist deformation.
The rheological behavior of liquids refers to how fluids respond to applied stresses or
deformations. Liquids can be classified into two main types based on their rheological behavior.
Newtonian fluids have a constant viscosity, regardless of the shear rate. Shear rate is the rate
at which a fluid is being deformed. Examples of Newtonian fluids include water, milk, and oil.
Non-Newtonian fluids have a viscosity that changes with shear rate.
Types of non-Newtonian fluids
Shear-thinning fluids: Viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate. Examples include
ketchup, toothpaste, and honey. Also called pseudo plastic flow.
Shear-thickening fluids: Viscosity increases with increasing shear rate. Examples include
cornstarch, suspensions and quicksand. Also called dilatant flow.
Bingham plastic fluids: These fluids exhibit a yield stress, which is the minimum stress that
must be applied before the fluid will flow. Examples include toothpaste and mayonnaise.
Thixotropic fluids: : Viscosity decreases over time under constant shear rate. Examples
include paint, yogurt and certain gels.
Rheopectic fluids: Viscosity increases over time under constant shear rate Examples include
ketchup and mayonnaise.
◦ The rheological behavior of liquids is an important factor to consider in many applications.
• Design of pumps and pipelines: The rheological behavior of the liquid being pumped must be
considered when designing pumps and pipelines. For example, if the liquid is highly viscous, a
more powerful pump will be needed.
• Formulation of food products: The rheological behavior of food products is important for their
texture and mouthfeel. For example, ice cream should be smooth and creamy, while ketchup
should be thick and pourable.
• Development of new materials: The rheological behavior of materials is important for their
performance and durability. For example, new materials can be developed with improved
rheological properties for use in applications such as aerospace engineering and automotive
engineering.
• The rheological behaviour of mortars and concretes must be studied to understand their
consistency and workability. The rheological behaviour affects the internal microstructure
which affects the mechanical behaviour and the durability of the material.
THIXOTROPY
• Thixotropy is a rheological property exhibited by certain materials that become less viscous
and more fluid-like over time when subjected to mechanical agitation, shearing forces, or
shaking, but they regain their original viscosity or thickness when left undisturbed.
• Some thixotropic fluids return to a gel state almost instantly, such as ketchup, and are
called pseudoplastic fluids. Others such as yogurt take much longer and can become nearly
solid. Many gels and colloids are thixotropic materials, exhibiting a stable form at rest but
becoming fluid when agitated.
• Thixotropy arises because particles or structured solutes require time to organize. Some fluids
are anti-thixotropic: constant shear stress for a time causes an increase in viscosity or even
solidification. Fluids which exhibit this property are sometimes called rheopectic.
Thixotropy occurs because of the presence of suspended particles in the fluid. These particles can
interact with each other to form a network structure, which gives the fluid its viscosity. When the fluid
is sheared, the network structure is broken down, and the fluid becomes less viscous. Over time, the
particles will reassemble and the fluid will return to its original viscosity.
The rate at which a thixotropic fluid thins and rethickens depends on a number of factors, including
the type and size of the suspended particles, the concentration of the particles, and the temperature of
the fluid.
Thixotropy is a common property of many everyday materials, such as: Ketchup, Toothpaste, Paint,
Yogurt, Mayonnaise, Quicksand, Drilling mud and Concrete.
Thixotropy is also an important property of many industrial materials, such as: Lubricants, Coatings,
Adhesives, Food products, Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics.
Thixotropy can be a desirable or undesirable property, depending on the application. For example, the
thixotropy of ketchup makes it easy to pour out of a bottle, but it also makes it difficult to spread on a
sandwich. The thixotropy of paint makes it easy to apply, but it also prevents it from dripping.
THERMAL PROPERTIES
• Thermal properties refer to the characteristics of a material that define its behavior in response
to changes in temperature. These properties are essential in various fields, including physics,
engineering, and materials science.
• Some common properties include Thermal Conductivity, Specific Heat Capacity:Melting and
Boiling Points, Thermal Expansion, Thermal Diffusivity, Thermal Resistivity:
• Understanding these thermal properties is essential for engineers and scientists when selecting
materials for specific applications, designing thermal systems, and predicting the behavior of
materials under different temperature conditions
Heat Capacity
Heat capacity is a physical property of matter, defined as the amount of heat to be supplied to an
object to produce a unit change in its temperature.
The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin (J/K). It is commonly denoted by the symbol C.
Heat capacity is an extensive property.
Heat capacity can be divided into two main types: specific heat capacity and molar heat capacity
The corresponding intensive property is the specific heat capacity, found by dividing the heat
capacity of an object by its mass.
Dividing the heat capacity by the amount of substance in moles yields its molar heat capacity.
In architecture and civil engineering, the heat capacity of a building is often referred to as
its thermal mass.
The heat capacity of an object depends on its mass (m) and the specific heat capacity (Cp) of the
material it is made of.
ΔQ=m×Cp×ΔT
Where:
• Q is the amount of heat energy absorbed or released (in J),
• m is the mass of the substance (in kg),
• Cpis the specific heat capacity of the material (in J/kg/C),
• ΔT is the change in temperature (in degrees Celsius or Kelvin).
Thermal Expansion
◦ Discribe implication for materials. How does temp affect the dim of solid and liquids.
◦ Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change its shape, area, volume, and density in
response to a change in temperature, usually not including phase transitions.
◦ Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a substance.
When a substance is heated, molecules begin to vibrate and move more, usually creating more
distance between themselves. Substances which contract with increasing temperature are
unusual, and only occur within limited temperature ranges. The relative expansion (also
called strain) divided by the change in temperature is called the material's coefficient of linear
thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature. As energy in particles increases,
they start moving faster and faster, weakening the intermolecular forces between them and
therefore expanding the substance.
◦ Thermal expansion refers to the tendency of matter to change its shape, area, and volume in response to a
change in temperature. When a substance is heated, its particles move more vigorously and, on average,
occupy a larger volume. This increase in volume or size due to the rise in temperature is known as
thermal expansion.
◦ Most materials expand when they are heated and contract when they are cooled. This phenomenon
occurs because the atoms and molecules in a substance move more rapidly at higher temperatures,
causing them to push apart and increase the overall size of the material.
◦ The degree to which a material expands or contracts depends on its thermal expansion coefficient.
Different materials have different coefficients of expansion. For example, metals generally have a higher
coefficient of thermal expansion compared to plastics. This is why metal structures like bridges are often
built with expansion joints to allow for the expansion and contraction of the metal with temperature
changes.
◦ Thermal expansion has various practical applications in everyday life and engineering. For instance, it's
crucial to consider thermal expansion in the design of bridges, railways, and other structures to prevent
damage due to temperature changes. It also plays a role in the accurate measurement of temperature
through devices like thermometers and thermostats.
Thermal Stresses
When a material is subjected to non-uniform temperature changes, different parts of the material
expand or contract by different amounts, leading to internal stresses. These are known as
Thermal Stresses.
They cause the material to deform, crack, or even fail if they exceed the material's strength.
There are generally three types of thermal stresses:
1. Constrained Thermal Stresses: These occur when a material is not free to expand or
contract. For example, if a metal bar is rigidly held at both ends and then heated, it will try to
expand, but it cannot due to the constraints, leading to internal stress.
2. Residual Thermal Stresses: Residual stresses are those that remain in a material even after
the temperature has returned to its original state. These stresses can occur during the
manufacturing process, such as during welding or heat treatment. When the material cools after
being heated and then formed or machined, internal stresses can develop.
3. Thermal Shock: Thermal shock happens when there is a rapid temperature change in a
material. This can lead to cracking or fracturing, especially in brittle materials.
Understanding and managing thermal stresses are crucial in engineering, especially in areas like
construction, aerospace, and manufacturing. Engineers use various techniques to mitigate
thermal stresses, such as selecting materials with appropriate thermal expansion coefficients,
designing structures to allow for thermal expansion and contraction, and using insulating
materials to reduce temperature gradients. Failing to account for thermal stresses can result in
structural failures or reduced lifespan of components and structures
Thermal Conductivity
◦ Thermal conductivity refers to the ability of a given material to conduct/transfer heat.
◦ It is generally denoted by the symbol ‘k’ but can also be denoted by ‘λ’ and ‘κ’.
◦ The reciprocal of this quantity is known as thermal resistivity.
◦ The SI unit of thermal conductivity is watts per meter-kelvin (W/m·K).
◦ Fourier’s law of thermal conduction (also known as the law of heat conduction) states that the
rate at which heat is transferred through a material is proportional to the negative of the
temperature gradient and is also proportional to the area through which the heat flows.
◦ Thermal conductivity depends on the type of material, temperature, density, and moisture
content. Metals usually have high thermal conductivity, meaning they can efficiently conduct
heat. Insulating materials like rubber or wood have low thermal conductivity.
The differential form of this law can be expressed through the following equation:
q = -k.∇T
Where
• ∇T refers to the temperature gradient,
• q denotes the thermal flux or heat flux,
• k refers to the thermal conductivity of the material.
Thermal conductivity is an essential property in various fields, including engineering, physics,
and materials science, as it determines how quickly heat can travel through a material
Applications: Knowledge of thermal conductivity is crucial in designing efficient heat
exchangers, insulating materials, and electronic devices. Materials with high thermal
conductivity are used in applications where efficient heat dissipation is necessary, such as in
computer processors and car engines. Conversely, materials with low thermal conductivity are
used for insulation to conserve energy by minimizing heat transfer.
◦ Measurement: Thermal conductivity can be measured using various experimental techniques,
including the hot wire method, the guarded hot plate method, and the laser flash method.
These methods involve measuring the temperature difference across a material and the rate of
heat transfer to calculate its thermal conductivity.
◦ Understanding the thermal conductivity of materials is essential in designing systems and
devices where heat management is critical. Engineers and scientists consider thermal
conductivity when selecting materials for specific applications to ensure optimal heat transfer
and energy efficiency.
