Internal Combustion Engines

Bsc Mechanical Engineering

7th Semester
Fall Semester 2023
NUTECH Islamabad
Combustion & Combustion Chamberin
SI Engines

2
 Introduction
 Combustion is a chemical reaction in which certain elements of the fuel
like hydrogen and carbon combine with oxygen liberating heat energy
and causing an increase in temperature of the gases.

 The conditions necessary for combustion are the presence of

 combustible mixture (Fuel +oxidizer)
 some means of initiating the process

 Depending on the type of engines, process of combustion generally takes

place either in
 a homogeneous or
 a heterogeneous fuel vapor-air mixture 3
 Homogeneous Mixture
 In spark-ignition engines homogeneous mixture of air and fuel is
formed in the (Carburetor, PFI and DFI) then combustion is initiated
at the end of compression stroke.

 Once the fuel vapor-air mixture is ignited, a flame front appears and
rapidly spreads through the mixture

 The flame propagation is caused by heat transfer and diffusion of

burning fuel molecules from the combustion zone to the adjacent
layers of fresh mixture
 The velocity at which the flame front moves, with respect to the
unburned mixture in a direction normal to its surface is called the
normal flame velocity
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 In a homogeneous mixture,
 In a SI engine working with gasoline/petrol, the maximum
flame is obtained when Φ is between 1.1 and 1.2, i.e., when the
speed
mixture is slightly richer than stoichiometric.
 If the equivalence ratio is outside this range the flame speed drops
rapidly to a low value and ceases to propagate

 Introducing turbulence and incorporating proper mixture

movement can increase flame speed in a mixtures outside the
above range.

 Combustion in the SI engine can be classified as Normal Combustion

and Abnormal Combustion
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 Stages of Combustion in SI Engine
From the theoretical pressure-crank angle diagram
 a-b Compression process
 b-c Combustion process
 c-d Expansion process
 The entire pressure rise during combustion takes place at

constant volume,

In actual engines this

does not happen. Actual
SI engine combustion
process consists of three
stages.

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 The 3 stages Actual engine combustion process
 Point A is the point of spark initiation (say 200bTDC)
 Point B is the point at which the beginning of pressure rise can be
detected (say 80 bTDC)
 Point C the attainment of peak pressure.

AB- stage
First (Delay
BC-Second stage
Period)
(flame
Propagation)
CD -Third stage
Quenching) (wall

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The First Stage (A-B) (Delay Period)
 The first stage is referred to as the ignition lag or preparation
phase in which growth and development of a self propagating
nucleus of flame takes place

 This process is a chemical process depending upon

 both temperature and pressure,
 the nature of the fuel and
 the proportion of the exhaust residual gas.
 the relationship between the the rate of
temperature and reaction.

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 The second stage (B-C) (flame Propagation)

 The second stage is a physical one and it is concerned with the spread
of the flame throughout the combustion chamber.

 The starting point of the second stage is where the first measurable rise
of pressure is seen on the indicator diagram i.e., the point where the
line of combustion departs from the compression line (point B).

 During the second stage the flame propagates practically at a constant

velocity.
 Heat transfer to the cylinder wall is low, because only a small part of
the burning mixture comes in contact with the cylinder wall during this
period.
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 The second stage (B-C) (flame Propagation)

 The rate of heat-release depends largely on

 the turbulence intensity and
 the reaction rate which is on the
dependent mixture
composition
 The rate of pressure rise is proportional to the rate of heat-
release because during this stage, the combustion chamber
volume remains practically constant

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The Third Stage c-d (Wall
Quenching
The third stage) starts at instant at which the maximum pressure is

reached
on the indicator diagram (point C).

 The flame velocity decreases during this stage.

 The rate of combustion becomes low due to lower flame velocity and
reduced flame front surface.

 The expansion stroke starts before this stage of combustion, with the
piston moving away from the top dead centre, there can be no pressure
rise during this stage.
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 Flame Front Propagation
The two important factors which determine the rate of movement of
the flame front across the combustion chamber are:

 Reaction rate: is the result of a purely chemical combustion process

in which the flame eats its way into the unburned charge

 Transposition rate: is due to the physical movement of the flame front

relative to the cylinder wall and is also the result of pressure
differential between the burning gases and the unburnt gases in the
combustion chamber.

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 Flame Front Propagation

A-B
 low transposition rate

 low reaction rate

B-C
 Increased Flame propagation

 high transposition rate

 High reaction rate

C-D
 low transposition rate

 low reaction rate

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 Area I-(A-B)
 The flame front progresses relatively slowly due to a low
transposition rate. Comparatively small mass of charge
burned at the start.

 The low reaction rate plays a dominant role resulting in a

slow advance of the flame.

 The lack of turbulence reduces the reaction rate and hence

the flame speed.

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 Area II (B-C)
 As the flame front leaves the quiescent zone and proceeds into
more turbulent areas (area II) where it consumes a greater mass
of mixture, it progresses more rapidly and at a constant rate (B-
C)

Area III (C-D)

 The volume of unburned charge is very less towards the end of
flame travel and so the transposition rate again becomes
negligible thereby reducing the flame speed.

 aThe
zone of relatively
reaction rate islow turbulence
also (C- since the flame is
reduced again 14
Other Factors Influencing The
Flame

Speed
The most important factors which affect the flame speed are the
turbulence, the fuel-air ratio, temperature and pressure,
compression ratio, engine output and engine speed

I. Turbulence
 Flame speed is quite low in non-turbulent mixtures and
increases with increasing turbulence

 Design of the combustion chamber which involves the

geometry of cylinder head and piston crown increases the
turbulence during the compression stroke.

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 I. Turbulence
 Turbulence increases the heat flow to the cylinder wall. It also
accelerates the chemical reaction by increasing the rate of contact
of burning and unburned particles.

 The increase of flame speed due to turbulence

 reduces the combustion duration and minimizes
hence tendency of abnormal the
combustion.
 However, excessive turbulence:
 may extinguish the flame resulting in rough noisy
and of the Engine. operation

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 II. Fuel-Air
Ratio
 The fuel-air ratio has a very significant influence on the flame
speed
 The highest flame velocities (minimum time for complete
combustion) are obtained with somewhat richer mixture (point A)
When the mixture is made leaner or
richer from point A, the flame speed
decreases
Less thermal energy is released in the
case of lean mixtures resulting in
lower flame temperature.
Very rich mixtures lead to incomplete
combustion which results again in the
release of less thermal energy
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 III. Temperature and Pressure
 Flame speed increases with an increase in intake
temperature and pressure.

 A higher initial pressure and temperature may help to form

a better homogeneous air-vapors mixture which helps in
increasing the flame speed.

 This is possible because of an overall increase in the

density of the charge.

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 IV. Compression Ratio
 A higher compression ratio increases the pressure and
temperature of the working mixture which reduce the initial
preparation phase of combustion and hence less ignition advance
is needed.

 Increased compression ratio reduces the clearance volume and

therefore increases the density of the cylinder gases during
burning.

 Increasing the density increases the peak pressure and

temperature
and the total combustion duration is reduced.
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 V. Engine Output
 With the increased throttle opening the cylinder gets filled to a higher
density. The cycle pressure increases when the engine output is
increased.
 When the output is decreased by throttling, the initial and final
compression pressures decrease and the dilution of the working mixture
increases.
 The smooth development of self-propagating nucleus of flame becomes
unsteady and difficult.
 The main disadvantages of SI engines are the poor combustion at low
loads and the necessity of mixture enrichment (Ø> between 1.2 to 1.3)
which causes wastage of fuel and discharge of unburnt hydrocarbon
and the products of incomplete combustion like carbon monoxide etc.
in the atmosphere.
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VI. Engine Speed

 The flame speed increases almost linearly with engine

speed since the increase in engine speed increases the
turbulence inside the cylinder.

 The time required for the flame to traverse the

combustion space would be halved, if the engine speed
is doubled.

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 RATE OF PRESSURE RISE
 The rate of pressure rise in an engine combustion
chamber
exerts a considerable influence on
 The peak pressure developed,
 The power produced and
 The smoothness with which the forces are transmitted to
the piston.
 The rate of pressure rise is mainly dependent upon the rate
of combustion of mixture in the cylinder.

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 RATE OF PRESSURE RISE
Curve I is for a high, curve II for the normal and curve III
for a low rate of combustion.

 With lower rate of

combustion longer time is
required to complete the
combustion
which necessitates the
initiation of burning at
an early point on the
compression stroke.

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 RATE OF PRESSURE RISE
 Higher rate of combustion results in higher rate of pressure
rise
producing higher peak pressures at a point closer to TDC.

 Higher peak pressures closer to TDC produce a greater force

acting through a large part of the power stroke and hence,
increase the power output of the engine.

 The higher rate of pressure rise causes rough running of the

engine because of vibrations produced in the crankshaft
rotation.
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 RATE OF PRESSURE RISE
 It also tends to promote an undesirable occurrence known as
knocking.

 A compromise between these opposing factors is

accomplished by designing and operating the engine in such
a manner that approximately one-half of the maximum
pressure is reached by the time the piston reaches TDC.

 This results in the peak pressure being reasonably close to the

beginning of the power stroke, yet maintaining smooth
engine operation.
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ABNORMAL COMBUSTION
 KNOCK AND SURFACE-IGNITION

 Abnormal combustion reveals itself in many ways. The two major

abnormal combustion processes which are important in practice,
are knock and surface-ignition.

 These abnormal combustion phenomena are of concern because:

1) when severe, they can cause major engine damage; and

2) Even if not severe, they are regarded as an

objectionable source of noise by the engine or vehicle
operator.
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 Description: Abnormal combustion
 Knock is the name given to the noise which is transmitted through the
engine structure when essentially spontaneous ignition of a portion of
the end gas - the fuel, air, residual gas, mixture ahead of the
propagating flame occurs.
 There is an extremely rapid release of most of the chemical energy in the end-gas,
causing very high local pressures and the propagation of pressure waves of
substantial amplitude across the combustion chamber.

 Surface Ignition is ignition of the fuel-air mixture by a hot spot on the

combustion chamber walls such as an overheated valve or spark plug,
or glowing combustion-chamber deposit: i.e., by any means other than
the normal spark discharge.
 Following surface ignition, a flame develops at each surface-ignition location and
starts to propagate across the chamber in an analogous manner to what occurs with
normal spark-ignition.

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 causes for end gas combustion
 Heat-release due to combustion in SI engines, increases the
temperature and the pressure, of the burned part of the
mixture above those of the unburned mixture

 In order to effect pressure equalization the burned part of

the mixture will expand, and compress the unburned
mixture adiabatically thereby increasing its pressure and
temperature

 If the temperature of the unburnt mixture exceeds the self-

ignition temperature of the fuel spontaneous ignition or
auto- ignition occurs at various pin-point locations.
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causes for end gas combustion
 The advancing flame front compresses the end charge
BB'D
farthest from the spark plug, thus raising its temperature.

 In spite of these factors if the temperature of the end charge had not
reached its self-ignition temperature, the charge would not auto
ignite and the flame will advance further and consume the charge
BB'D.
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Knock In SI Engines
 However, if the end charge BB'D reaches its auto ignition temperature
the charge will auto ignite, leading to knocking combustion.
 it is assumed that when flame has reached the position BB', the
charge ahead of it has reached critical auto-ignition temperature.

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Knock in SI Engines
 Pressure variation in the cylinder during knocking combustion for
normal combustion, light knock and heavy knock, respectively

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 Knock In SI Engines
 Because of the auto ignition, another flame front starts
traveling in the opposite direction to the main flame front.

 When the two flame fronts collide, a severe pressure pulse is

generated.

 The presence or absence of knocking in combustion is

often judged from a distinctly audible sound.

 A scientific method to detect the phenomenon of knocking is

to
use a pressure transducer.
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 Knock In SI Engines
 knocking is very much dependent on the properties of fuel.

 If the unburned charge does not reach its auto ignition

temperature there will be no knocking.

 If the ignition delay period is longer the time required for the
flame front to burn through the unburned charge will be
short, then there will be no knocking.

 Hence, in order to avoid or inhibit detonation, and a high

auto ignition temperature, a long ignition delay are the
desirable qualities for SI engine fuels.
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Effect of Engine Variables on Knock
 Effect of temperature
 Reduced temperature of the unburned charge reduce the
possibility of knocking by reducing the temperature of the
end charge for auto ignition.

 Effect of Compression Ratio

 Increase in compression ratio increases the pressure and
temperature of the gases at the end of the compression stroke,
increases the tendency for knocking.

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 Effect of Engine Variables on Knock
 Effect of density
 Reduction in density of the charge tends to reduce knocking by
providing lower energy release.

 The overall increase in the density of the charge due to higher

compression ratio increases the pre-flame reactions in the end
charge thereby increasing the knocking tendency of the engine.

Inlet Temperature of the Mixture:

 Increase in the inlet temperature of the mixture makes the compression
temperature higher thereby, increasing the tendency of knocking.

 Further, volumetric efficiency will be lowered. Hence, a lower

inlet temperature is always preferable to reduce knocking.
Effect of Engine Variables
on Knock
 Mass of inducted charge
 A reduction in the mass of the inducted charge into the cylinder by
throttling or reducing the amount of supercharging reduces both
temperature and density of the charge at the time of ignition .This
decreases the tendency of knocking .
 Temperature of the Combustion Chamber Walls

 To prevent knocking the hot spots in the combustion chamber

should be avoided.

 Since, the spark plug and exhaust valve are two hottest parts in
the combustion chamber, the end gas should not be compressed
against them
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Effect of Engine Variables
on Knock
Retarding the Spark Timing:
 Retarding the spark timing from the optimized timing, i.e., having the
spark closer to TDC, the peak pressures are reached farther down on
the power stroke and are thus of lower magnitude.
 This might reduce the knocking. However, the spark timing will be
different from the MBT timing affecting the brake torque and power
output of the engine.

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 Effect of Engine Variables
on Knock
Power Output of the Engine

 A decrease in the output of the engine decreases the temperature of

the cylinder and the combustion chamber walls and also the
pressure of the charge thereby lowering mixture and end gas
temperatures. This reduces the tendency to knock.

Turbulence
 Turbulence depends on the design of the combustion chamber
and on engine speed.
 Increasing turbulence increases the flame speed and reduces
the time available for the end charge to attain auto ignition
conditions thereby decreasing the tendency to knock.
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Effect of Engine Variables on Knock
Engine Speed

 An increase in engine speed increases the turbulence of the

mixture considerably resulting in increased flame speed, and
reduces the time available for pre-flame reactions. Hence
knocking tendency is reduced at higher speeds.

Flame travel Distance

 The knocking tendency is reduced by shortening the time required

for the flame front to traverse the combustion chamber.
 Engine size, combustion chamber shape, and spark plug position
the
are three important factors governing the flame travel distance

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 Effect of Engine Variables on Knock
•Engine size
 The flame requires a longer time to travel across the combustion chamber of a larger
engine.
 Therefore, a larger engine has a greater tendency for knocking than a smaller engine since
there is more time for the end gas to auto ignite.
 Hence, an SI engine is generally limited to size of about 150 mm bore.

•Combustion Chamber Shape

 Generally, the more compact the combustion chamber is, the shorter is the flame travel
and the combustion time and hence
better antiknock
characteristics.

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 Effect of Engine Variables on Knock
 The combustion chambers are made as spherical as possible to minimize the length of
the flame travel for a given volume.
 If the turbulence in the combustion chamber is high, the combustion rate is high and
consequently combustion time and knocking tendency are reduced.
 Hence, the combustion chamber is shaped in such a way as to promote turbulence.

Location of Spark Plug

 In order to have a minimum flame travel, the spark plug is centrally located in the
combustion chamber, resulting in minimum knocking tendency.

 The flame travel can also be reduced by using two or more spark plugs in case of
large engines.

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 Composition Factors
Fuel-Air Ratio:
 The flame speeds are affected by fuel-air ratio. Also the flame
temperature and reaction time are different for different fuel-air
ratios.
 Maximum flame speed and temperature is obtained when Φ≈1.1-
1.2.

Octane Value of the Fuel

 A higher self-ignition temperature of the fuel and a low pre-flame
reactivity would reduce the tendency of knocking.
 In general, Paraffin series of hydrocarbon have the maximum and
aromatic series the minimum tendency to knock. The naphthene series
comes in between the two

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44
Combustion Chambers For SI Engines
 The design of the combustion chamber for an SI engine has an important
influence on the engine performance and its knocking tendencies.
 The design involves
 the shape of the combustion chamber,
 the location of spark plug and
 the location of inlet and exhaust valves.

 The important requirements of an SI engine combustion chamber are

• to provide high power output with minimum octane requirement,
• high thermal efficiency and
• smooth engine operation.

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Combustion Chambers For
SI Engines
I. Smooth engine operation
 The aim of any engine design is to have a smooth operation and
a good economy.
 These can be achieved by the following:

a. Moderate Rate of Pressure Rise

 Limiting the rate of pressure rise as well as the position of the

peak pressure with respect to TDC affect smooth engine
operation.

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Combustion Chambers For SI Engines
b. Reducing the Possibility of Knocking
 Reduction in the possibility of knocking in an engine can be achieved
by,
 Reducing the distance of the flame travel by centrally locating
the spark plug and also by avoiding pockets of stagnant charge.
 Satisfactory cooling of the spark plug and of exhaust valve area
which are the source of hot spots in the majority of the
combustion chambers.
 Reducing the temperature of the last portion of the charge,
through application of a high surface to volume ratio in that part
where the last portion of the charge burns.

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Combustion Chambers For
SI Engines
II. High Power Output and Thermal Efficiency
This can be achieved by considering the following factors:
a. A high degree of turbulence is needed to achieve a high flame
front velocity.
 Turbulence is induced by inlet flow configuration or squish
 Squish is the rapid radial movement of the gas trapped in
between the piston and the cylinder head into the bowl or the
dome.
 Squish can be induced in spark-ignition engines by having a
bowl in piston or with a dome shaped cylinder head.
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Combustion Chambers For
SI Engines
b. High Volumetric Efficiency
 More charge during the suction stroke,
results in an increased power output.
 This can be achieved by providing ample clearance around
the valve heads,
 large diameter valves and straight passages with minimum
pressure drop.
c. Improved anti-knock characteristics
 Improved anti-knock characteristics permits the use of a
higher compression ratio resulting in increased output and
efficiency.
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 Combustion Chambers For
SI Engines
d. A Compact Combustion Chamber
 Reduces heat loss during combustion and increases the
thermal efficiency.
 Different types combustion chambers have been developed over
a period of time Some of them are shown in Fig.
 T-Head Type
 L-Head Type
 I-Head Type or Overhead Valve
 F-Head Type

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 T-Head Type:
 The T-head combustion were
chambers
used in the early stage of
development. engine
 Since the distance across the combustion
chamber is very long, knocking tendency is
high in this type of engines.
 This configuration provides two valves on
either side of the cylinder, requiring two
camshafts. From the manufacturing point
of view, providing two camshafts is a
disadvantage.

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 L-Head Type

 A modification of the T-head type of

combustion chamber is the L-head type which
provides the two valves on the same side of the
cylinder and the valves are operated by a single
camshaft.

 The main objectives of the Ricardo's turbulent

head design, Fig (c), axle to obtain fast flame
speed and reduced knock

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I Head Type or Overhead Valve:
 In which both the valves are located on the cylinder
head.
 The overhead valve engine is superior to a side
valve or an L-head engine at high compression
ratios.
 Some of the important characteristics of this type of
valve arrangement are:
 less surface to volume ratio and therefore less
heat loss
 less flame travel length and hence greater
freedom from knock
 higher volumetric efficiency from larger valves
or valve lifts
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 F-Head Type:
The F-head type of valve arrangement is a
compromise between L-head and I-head types.

Combustion chambers in which one valve is in the

cylinder head and the other in the cylinder block are
known as F-head combustion chambers
Modern F-head engines have exhaust valve in the
head and inlet valve in the cylinder block.

The main disadvantage of this type is that the inlet

valve and the exhaust valve are separately actuated
by two cams mounted on to camshafts driven by the
crankshaft through gears.
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