Fundamentals of

Forensic Science
Professor Maria Julieta G Razonable, RChE
Assistant Head, Department of Forensic
Science
 WEEK 1

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson the cadets will be able to:
1. Discuss the scope of Forensic Science;
2. Trace the history and development of Forensic Science
and the organization of Crime Laboratory in the
Philippines;
3. Explain the interrelationship of Forensic Sciences from
each other.
 Forensic science may be defined as the application of
various scientific disciplines to aid the criminal justice
system.
 It often shortened to forensics, the application of a
broad spectrum of sciences to answer questions of
interest to a legal system.
 Forensic science begins at the crime scene. Every
forensic investigator has to recognize physical
evidence and properly preserve it for laboratory
examinations.
 History of Forensic Science:

 From the days of Sherlock Holmes, to the TV

show CSI, the world is captivated by forensic
science.
 The use of science to catch criminals is not only
captivating, but also incredibly powerful.
 Forensic science is a very large field, with a long
history of application, and even in more recent
times, development of increasingly sensitive and
specific analysis methods allow analysis of even
the smallest traces of evidence.
Forensic science may be defined as the
application of various scientific disciplines to
aid the criminal justice system.
The word forensic comes from the Latin
adjective forensis, meaning "of or before the
forum.”
During the time of the Romans, a criminal
charge meant presenting the case before a
group of public individuals
 Both the person accused of the crime and the
accuser would give speeches based on their side
of the story.
 The individual with the best argumentation and
delivery would determine the outcome of the
case.
 In other words, the person with the best forensic
skills would win.
OCCURRENCE/PHENOMENA WITH Forensic Concepts:
 Scene of Crime Operation/Crime Scene
Investigation
 Disaster Victim Identification
 Underwater Search and Evidence Response
 CBRN Response
 Radiological Event Response
 Air Crash Investigation
 Paranormal Investigation
 UFOlogy
 Forensic Specialties or Division of Forensic
Science:
1.Forensic Accounting
2. Forensic Anthropology
3. Forensic Archaeology
4.Forensic Botany
5. Forensic Astronomy
6.Forensic Chemistry
7. Computational Forensic
20. Forensic Optometry

21. Forensic Pathology

22. Forensic Psychology

23. Forensic Seismology

24. Forensic Serology

25. Forensic Toxicology

 In the Philippines the first public
recognition of the value of science in the
proper administration of justice was made
when the position of “Medicos Titulares”
was created in the Philippines by virtue of
the Royal Decree No. 188 of Spain dated
March 31, 1876.
 every province a Forensic Physician was
assigned to perform public sanitary duties
and at the same time medico-legal aids to
the administration of justice.
 On December 15, 1884, Governor General Joaquin
Javellar created a committee to study the mineral
waters of Luzon and appointed Anacleto del
Rosario as chemist.
 Realizing the importance of this work, the government
established in September 13, 1887 the “Laboratorio
Municipal de Manila” under the inspection of the
“Direccion General de Administracion Civil” and the
control of the “Gobierno de Provincias”.
 The functions of the laboratory were to make
analysis, not only of food, water and others from
the standpoint of public health and legal
medicine, but also of specimens for clinical
purposes.
Anacleto del Rosario was appointed director after a
competitive examination in June 17, 1888. At
present, there are five distinct laboratories in the
Philippines,
 Technical Services of the National Bureau of
Investigation,
 the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency,
 the Philippine National Police Forensic Group,
 the Public Attorney’s Office and
 the University of the Philippines College of
Biology.
The PNP Crime Laboratory was renamed as
PNP Forensic Group through General Orders
Number DPL-20-32, pursuant to NAPOLCOM
Resolution No. 2021-1275 dated September
30, 2021 and shall continue to perform its
mandates as provided for under Section 35(a)
of RA No. 6975 in providing scientific and
investigative aid and support to the PNP and
other government investigative agencies.
1. Conduct Forensic Examination
a) Medico-Legal Examination
b) Firearms Identification
c) Fingerprint Identification
d) Forensic Photography
e) Document Examination
f) Polygraph Examination
g) Physical Identification
h) Chemical Examinations
i) DNA Examinations
2. Conduct forensic research and training
in criminalistics
3. Provide expert testimony in court

4. Provide Scene of Crime Operation

5. Provide other related functions as

instructed by higher headquarters
It upholds the creed that:
“If the law has made you a witness, remain a
man of science. You have no victim to avenge,
no guilty or innocent person to ruin or save. You
must bear witness within the limits of science”
(Brouardel).
• Performance Task

After watching the video, in not more than 200

words discuss and describe your appreciation of our
course and its importance to law enforcement
 WEEK 2
Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson the cadets will be able to:
1. Classify the different physical evidence;
2. Analyze the importance of proper handling,
collection, preservation and evaluation of
physical evidence;
3. Identify the different biological evidence and
trace evidence.
4. Recognize the importance of biological and trace
evidence
5. Categorize the different biological and trace
evidence in the filing of cases in court.
 What is Evidence
 A means of ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the
truth respecting a matter of fact (Sec 1, Rules on
Evidence)
 Is defined as that which is legally submitted to a
competent tribunal as a means of ascertaining the
truth of any alleged matter of fact under investigation
before it.
 Is also anything which a suspect leaves at a crime
scene or takes from the crime scene, or which may
be otherwise connected with the crime.
 Can be anything that tends to prove or disprove an
issue in questioned.
Evidence is admissible when it is relevant to
the issue and is not excluded by the law or by
the Rules on Evidence.
must have such a relevance to the fact in issue
as to induce belief in the existence of non-
existence.
Evidence on collateral matters shall not be
allowed, except when it tends in any
reasonable degree to establish the probability
or improbability of the fact in issue.
Types of Evidence:
Testimonial evidence is comprised of evidence that is provided
in the form of a statement of testimony provided under oath.
 is usually subjected to questioning and additional
clarification.
Physical Evidence is any type of evidence having an objective
existence, that is, any dimension, size or shape.
 can take almost any form and can be as minute as a
microscopic fiber in a rape case, or an odor of a flammable
liquid at the scene of a fire, or as large as an automobile
involved in a hit and run accident.
 It encompasses any and all objects that can establish that a
crime has been committed or can provide a link between a
crime and its victim or a crime and its perpetrator.
Scientific evidence
the means sanctioned by law, of
ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the
truth respecting a matter of fact wherein
scientific knowledge is necessary
FORMS OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE
1.Real of Autoptic evidence
-evidence which is addressed to the
senses of the court.
-It is not limited to that which can be
known by the sense of vision, but
extends to those which are perceived
by the senses of hearing, taste, smell
or touch.
2.Testimonial evidence
-An expert may be placed on the
witness stand and answer all questions
to be propounded by both parties in
the case.
-It is a solemn declaration made orally
by a witness under oath in response to
interrogation by a lawyer.
3.Experimental evidence
 An expert witness may be required to
perform certain experiments to prove a
certain matter of fact.

 The court, however, in its own

discretion may or may not allow this
kind of evidence.
4. Documentary evidence

 Any written evidence presented by an

expert in court which is relevant to
the subject matter in dispute and not
excluded by the Rules of Court.
 Formal written report, expert opinion,
certificates and dispositions are
included in this group.
WITNESS – One who testifies in court and has
personal knowledge or experience of
something.
 A person, other than the suspect who is
requested to give information concerning an
incident or person.
 He may be a victim, complainant, an accuser,
a source of information and an observer of an
occurrence.
 A witness in court may be an ordinary or
expert witness.
 An ordinary witness is one who states facts and
may not express his opinions or conclusion.
 may testify to impressions of common experience
such as the speed of a vehicle, whether a voice
was that of a man, woman or child. Beyond this is
closely limited.
 As ordinary witness, the Rules of Court requires
that the person must have the following
qualifications:
1. He must have the organ and power to perceive.
2. The perception gathered by his organ can be
imparted to others.
3. He does not fall in any of the exception provided for
by the law, Se. 26, Rules 123, Rules of Court.
 An expert witness
- one who possesses a special skill be it
in art, trade or science or one who has
special knowledge in matters not
generally known to men of ordinary
education and experience.
- He is a person skilled in some art,
trade or science to the extent that he
possesses information not within the
common knowledge of man.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ORDINARY AND EXPERT
WITNESS
1. An ordinary witness can only state what his senses have
perceived while an expert witness may state what he has
perceived and also give his opinions, deductions or
conclusions to his perceptions.

2. An ordinary witness may not be skilled on the line he is

testifying while an expert witness must be skilled in art,
science or trade he is testifying.

3. An ordinary witness cannot testify on things or facts he

has not perceived except those provided by law while an
expert witness may testify on things which he has not seen
by giving his opinions, deductions or conclusions on the
statement of facts.
In weighing the testimony of an expert, all the
circumstances of the case must be taken into
consideration, among them
(a) the degree of learning of the witness;
(b) the basis and logic of the conclusion; and
(c) the other proof of case.

Physical evidence is any evidence introduced in a

trial in the form of a physical object intended to prove a
fact in issue based on its demonstrable physical
characteristics.

Physical evidence can conceivably include all or part

of any object.
Physical evidence
 any evidence introduced in a trial in the form
of a physical object intended to prove a fact in
issue based on its demonstrable physical
characteristics.
 Can conceivably include all or part of any
object.
Common terms in naming physical evidence
1. Exhibit - an object or document used as evidence to be
presented in court

2. Specimen - a usual term of chemist in the laboratory,

composed of the whole bulk of evidence.

3. Sample - part of selected from evidence for laboratory

examination.
Classification of examining physical evidence
Identification- determination of physical and chemical identity
of a substance and employ standard and specific test.

Comparison- done by subjecting questioned specimen and

control specimen to the same test for the purpose of
determining whether or not they have the same origin
Considerations in Establishing a Physical
Evidence

1.Individual characteristics- attributed from a common

source with an extremely high degree of certainty. The
following are example of evidence with individual
characteristic.
-Striation markings of bullet made by the gun barrel and
tool marks
-Ridges of fingerprint
-Footwear impression
-Handwriting
“probability is so high as to defy mathematical
calculations of human comprehension” – Victor Baltazar
.
2.Class characteristics
-property of evidence that can only be
associated with a group and never with a
single source.
- that can only be identified by placing it into
a particular class, regardless of the amount
of thoroughness of examination.
-A definite identification as to its source can
never be made, since there is possibility of
more than one source for this evidence. The
property is the same throughout the whole
group not by a single specimen
The following are example of evidence with class characteristic;
-Layers of paint
-Blood
-Hairs and fibers
In cases involving evidence with class characteristics, the
following are desirable:
a. A preponderance (prevalence, majority) of such evidence
b. Probability
c. Rarity
d. Theory of Transfer
“EVERY CONTACT LEAVES A TRACE” – Dr. Edmond Locard

“When two objects come into contact, there will frequently be a transfer of
small amounts of material from one to the other. Thus, when suspects come in
contact with the victim and object at the crime scene, they frequently leave
behind traces of themselves and take with them traces of any objects touched.

e. Comparisons
Purpose of Physical Evidence
1.Proves theory to a case (To prove that a
crime has been committed, or establish key
elements of the crime).
2. To link a suspect with the victim or with the
crime scene
3. To establish the identity of persons
associated with a crime
4. To exonerate the innocent.
5. To corroborate victim’s testimony.
6. Negative evidence can help provide proof.
7.Physical evidence can be more important
than eyewitnesses’ testimony.
8.To satisfy the general rules of evidence.
9.Identify property or contraband connected
with a crime, or proving involvement by the
suspect/s.
10. Develop modus operandi (methods of
operation or show similar MO’s)
11.To induce a suspect to make admissions,
or even confess.
Sources of Physical Evidence(Triangle
1. The Crime Scene
2.The Victim
3.The Suspect and his/her Environment
What are the implications of proper evidence
processing to forensic examinations?
1. Proper handling or physical evidence is necessary to
obtain the maximum possible information upon which
scientific examination shall be based and to prevent its
exclusion as evidence in competent court.
2. Specimens which truly represent the material
evidence found at the crime scene, and remain
unaltered, unspoiled, or otherwise unchanged, in the
course of handling, would provide more and better
scientific information upon examination.
Chain of Custody – Generally, in order for
evidence to be admissible in a court of law, strict
accountability must be established to show
where, when and how an item of evidence was
collected. In addition, sufficient testimony must
be presented to establish the “chain of custody”.
• The chain of custody of an item of evidence
shows the entire history, starting with its
initial discovery, collection, packaging,
transportation, examination, storage, and
presentation in court.
 When is the collection of evidence
accomplished?
This is accomplished after the search is completed,
the rough sketch is completed, finished and
photographs taken
Collection and Preservation of Physical
Evidence
Handling physical evidence means recognition,
identification, collection, preservation, and the
appropriate manner of packing an evidence.
Evidence must be protected to its utmost care to
prevent contamination and deterioration especially
those that are fragile in nature.
 Essentially at crime scene, the process at
proper handling the physical evidence is very
important.
 Objects which truly represent the material
found at the scene of the crime as unaltered,
unspoiled or otherwise unchanged in handling
will furnish a better information upon
examination.
 Physical evidence once identified, properly
collected, preserved and packed would
provide convenience and ease for the forensic
analysts in their routine of examination.
 Results from various scientific examination
performed into an evidence could illustrate the
possible re-enactment of how the crime was
committed and prevent exclusion as exhibit in
court.
 Courts require legal ramification of accounting
of evidence from the time it is collected until it is
presented as exhibit.
What are the principles to be observed in
handling all types of physical evidence?
1.The evidence should reach the laboratory as
much as possible in same condition as when it
is found.
2. The quantity of specimen should be
adequate. Even with the best equipment
available, good results cannot be obtained
from insufficient specimens.
3. Submit a known or standard specimen for
comparison purposes.
 4. Keep each specimen separate from others or
there will be no intermingling or mixing of
known and unknown material. Wrap and seal
in individual packages when necessary.
• 5. Mark or label each piece of evidence for
positive identification as the evidence taken
from a particular location in connections with the
crime under investigation.
• 6. The chain of custody of evidence must be
maintained. Account for evidence form the
time it is collected until it is produced in court.
Any break in this chain of custody may make
the material inadmissible in court.
BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
1. Blood – can be grouped and examined for its
DNA pattern. The examination of blood
evidence can also determine if an offender is a
secretor or non-secretor
A. Liquid Blood Samples
B. Dried Blood Samples
2. Semen/Seminal Stains – is the male
reproductive fluid.
 Not only can DNA analysis of semen provide
positive personal identification of the source, it
can also serve as corroborating evidence when
recovered at the crime scene or from the victim
or victim’s clothing.
 When wet, semen is grayish-white in color and
bears a chlorine-like odor. When dry it is stiff and
starch like in consistency.
3. Vaginal fluids
 Vaginal swabbing is examined for comparative
value as well as to determine the presence of
spermatozoa or seminal fluid within the vaginal
cavity or anal tract.
4. Urine
 Analysis of a urine sample may for example verify a
victim’s assertion that he/she was drugged prior to
the crime. Is ordinarily associated with some sex
offenses and breaking and entering.
 If sufficient quantity exists, it is possible to
distinguish between animal and human origin, as
well as the alcohol content of the contributor
 Biological Evidence
5. Saliva
 Known saliva samples for both the victim and
offender(s) should be obtained and submitted for
serologic examination.
 Saliva can provide invaluable evidence concerning
the blood type of its depositor, for later DNA
analysis.
 At the crime scene, saliva can be found on
cigarette butts, cups, glasses, toothpicks and
other items placed in the mouth.
6. Perspiration
 Perspiration is difficult to analyze for blood group
substances. Essentially it is treated the same as urine
and it is identified and typed in the same manner as
urine.
7. Tissue, epithelial (skin) cells
 Fingernail scrapings are a form of evidence collection,
for they have the potential of revealing the presence of
tissue and epithelial cells retained during a struggle or
assault.
 Epithelial cells are skin cells that comprise the
uppermost layer of the skin and are easily sloughed
and both epithelial and tissue cells can be forensically
examined and grouped into DNA patterns.
TRACE EVIDENCE
Trace evidence is a generic term for small, often
microscopic material. It is material found at a
crime scene or accident scene in small but measurable
amounts.
This is important as it can definitively link an individual
or object to the scene.
 Trace evidence is based on Locard's exchange principle
which contends that every contact no matter how
slight will leave a trace and is normally caused by
objects or substances contacting one another, and
leaving a minute sample on the contact surfaces.
Material is often transferred by heat induced by
contact friction.
 Trace Evidence
Locard’s Exchange Principle
The Locard exchange principle, also known as
Locard's theory, was postulated by 20th century
forensic scientist Edmond Locard.
Locard was the director of the very first crime
laboratory in existence, located in Lyon, France.
Locard's exchange principle states that "with contact
between two items, there will be an exchange"
(Thornton, 1997).
• “Wherever he steps, whatever he touches, whatever he
leaves, even unconsciously, will serve as a silent witness
against him. Not only his fingerprints or his footprints,
but his hair, the fibers from his clothes, the glass he
breaks, the tool mark he leaves, the paint he scratches,
the blood or semen he deposits or collects. All of these
and more, bear mute witness against him. This is
evidence that does not forget. It is not confused by the
excitement of the moment. It is not absent because
human witnesses are. It is factual evidence. Physical
evidence cannot be wrong, it cannot perjure itself, it
cannot be wholly absent. Only human failure to find it,
study and understand it, can diminish its value”.
Professor Edmond Locard
1. Hair strands
 Each hair found at the crime scene must be
compared with a standard sample obtained from all
possible sources.
 Head and pubic hairs have great evidentiary value
and should be collected from all sources.
 Hair can be used both for comparison analysis as
well as DNA analysis.
2. Fibers
 The location and collection of fiber evidence at a
crime scene can be a difficult task.
 Due to their minute size and composition, fibers
must be sought out in a thorough, detailed and
exacting fashion. Search on clothing, headgear, and
pay particular attention to linings, pockets, and cuff.
 The general crime scene itself should be carefully
searched for all fiber evidence, particularly any
location that may have been the site of a struggle or
assault.
3. Paint
 When one thinks of a paint, the first identifying
characteristics that comes to mind is usually color.
 Color is determined by the use of various dyes or
granules of pigment in the paint.
 Aside from color, paint also has a wide variety of
other distinguishing characteristics.
 These include its general composition, i.e. oil-based,
acrylic, water-based (latex), etc., as well as its texture
and finish, such as flat, semi-gloss or gloss. All of
these characteristics combined create a very unique
paint signature.
4. Glass Fractures and Glass Fragments
Bullet trajectory examination in a shooting incident
especially ambuscades, robbery and glass fragments in
vehicular accident
5. Arson Evidence
Physical evidence in a fire scene as a consequence of
malicious burning of a dwelling including one’s own
6. Explosive evidence
Evidence in a bombing incident, illegal fishing and post
blast investigation
7. Tool marks
Evidence impressed by a tool usually metal used in
the commission of the crime
OTHER PIECES OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
1. Seized Drug Evidence
Drugs submitted for examination come in
powders/crystals, tablets and capsules, living
plants or dried vegetable matter and liquids.
2. Poisons/Toxicological Evidence
In cases of food poisoning and death
through poisonous substance