Computer Networks

Unit-3
By
P.Jayalakshmi. AP/CSE
 DNS(Domain Name System)
● TCP/IP protocols uses IP address.
● Identifies connection of a host to the internet.
● System maps a name to an address
● Host file – only two columns (name, address)
● Single host file – maps the names to address
● Host file would be large to store in every host.
● Impossible to update the changes happens every time to the host file.
Solution 1
● Store the host file in a single system and allow the centralized information access to every system that
needs mapping.
Disadvantage
● Huge amount of traffic to the internet.
Solution 2
● Divide the huge amount of information into smaller parts and store on different systems.
● Host which needs mapping can communicate to the closest system that holds the information.
● This solution is called Domain Name System.
18CSC302J- School of Computing (Odd sem 2020)
Purpose of DNS
Six steps to map host name to an IP address
1. User passes the host name to the file transfer client (FTC).
2. FTC passes the host name to DNS client.
3. DNS client sends a message to the DNS Server. The query gives
the file transfer server name using the known IP address of the
DNS server.
4. DNS server responses back with the IP address of the desired file
transfer server.
5. DNS client passes the IP address to file transfer server.
6. FTC uses the IP address it received to access the file transfer
server.
Two Connections must be made
● Mapping the name to an IP address
● Transferring files
Namespace
● Maps the address to the unique names.
● Organized in two ways flat or hierarchical.
Flat Name Space
● Name is assigned to an address, name is the sequence of characters without structures.
Disadvantage
● Cannot used in large system.
● Centrally controlled to avoid ambiguity and duplications.
Hierarchical Name Space
● Each name is made up of several parts.
● First part – nature of organization
● Second part – name of an organization
● Third part – departments in the organization
● Namespace can be decentralized.
● Suffixes (or prefixes) are added to the name that defines the host or system.
Domain Name Space
✔ Hierarchical name space – DNS was designed.
✔ Names are defined in inverted tree structure
with root at top.
✔ Tree have 128 levels – 0 (root) to 127.
Label
✔ Each node in a tree has a label – max of 63
characters.
Domain Name System ✔ Root label is a null string.
✔ Children node should have different labels that
will ensure uniqueness in domain names.
Domain Name
✔ Full domain name is the sequence of labels
separated by dots.
✔ Domain names read from nodes up to the root.
✔ Full domain name always ends in a null label.
Domain names and labels
Fully Qualified Domain Names (FQDN)
Partially Qualified Domain Names (PQDN)
Fully Qualified Domain Names (FQDN)
● If the label is terminated by null string it is called fully qualified domain
names.
● Contains the full name of the host, contains all labels from most specific to
most general.
● DNS server can match an FQDN to an address.
Eg: challenger.atc.fhda.edu.

Partially Qualified Domain Names (PQDN)

FQDN and PQDN ● If the label is not terminated by null string it is called partially qualified
domain name.
● PQDN starts from the node but does not reach the root.
● The resolver will supply the missing part called the suffix to create a PQDN.
● User at fhda.edu site wants to get the IP address of the challenger computer,
has to mention the partial name.
Eg: challenger
● The DNS client adds the suffix before parsing the address to the DNS server.
Eg: act.fhda.edu
Domain Name Space
Domain
● It is the subtree of domain name space.
● The of the domain is the name of the node at the
top of the subtree.
● Domains may itself divided into sub domains.
Distribution of name space
● Information in the namespace must be stored.
Domains ● It is inefficient and not reliable to store the
information in a single system.
Solution
● Distribute the information among many computers
called DNS servers.
Hierarchy of name space
● Divide the whole space into many domains based
Hierarchy of name servers on the first level.
Domain Name Space
Zone
● What a server is responsible for or has authority over is
called zones.
● Zone is the contiguous part of the entire tree.
● If server accepts the responsibility for a domain and does
not divide the domain into smaller domains then
“domain” and “zone” refers the same thing.
Zones and Domains
Root server
● It is the server whose zone consists of the whole tree.
● It does not store any information about the domains but
delegates the authority to other servers, keeping
references to those servers.
Domain Name Space
Primary and Secondary Servers

Primary Server
● Server that stores the file about the zone for which it is in authority.
● It is responsible for creating, maintaining and updating the zone files.
● It stores zone file on a local disk.

Secondary Servers
● Server that transfers the complete information about zone from another server and stores the file on its
local disk.
● Secondary server neither creates nor updates the zone files.
DNS in the Internet
● In internet the domain name space is divided into three
different sections.
● Generic domains, country domains and the inverse domains.
Generic Domains
● Define registered hosts according to their generic behaviour.
● Each node in a tree defines a domain which is an index to the
DNS used in internet domain name space database.

Generic Domain Labels

Generic Domains
DNS in the Internet
Country Domains
● Uses two character country abbreviations.

Eg: US for United Sates

● Second label can be organizational or they can be more
specific national designations.
Eg: ca.us

Country Domains
Inverse Domain
● It is used to map an address to a name.
● This happens when the server has received a request
from the client.
● Type of query called an inverse or pointer (PTR) query.
● To handle the pointer query the inverse domain is
added to the domain name space with the first level
node.
● Second level is also one single node named in addr (for
Inverse Domain
inverse address).
Resolution
Mapping a name to an address or an address to a name is called name
address resolution.
Resolver
● DNS is designed as a client – server application.
● Host that needs to map an address to a name or a name to an
address calls a DNS client called a resolver.
● After the resolver receives the mapping, it interprets the response
to see if it is a real resolution or an error and finally delivers the
results to the process that requested it.
Mapping Names to Addresses
● The resolver gives a domain name to the server and asks for the
corresponding address.
● If the domain name is from the generic domain the resolver
receives a domain name such as “chal.atc.fhda.edu.
● if the domain name is from the country domain the resolver
receives a domain name such as “ch.fhda.cu.ca.us.
Resolution
Mapping Addresses to Names
● A client can send an IP address to a server to be mapped to a
domain name.
● To answer the PTR query DNS uses the inverse domain.
● in the request the IP address is reversed and two labels in-
addr and arpa are appended to create a domain acceptable by
the inverse domain.
Recursive resolution
Recursive Resolution
● The client can ask for a recursive answer from a name server.
● If the server is the authority for the domain name, it checks its
database and responds.
● If the server is not the authority it sends the request to
another server and waits for the response.
● If the parent is the authority it responds otherwise it sends the
query to another server.
Resolution
Iterative Resolution
● If server is an authority for the name it sends the answer.
● If not it returns the IP address of the server that thinks it can
resolve the query.
● The client is responsible for repeating the request to the second
server.
● The client repeats the same procedure to next server and so on
● This process is called iterative because the client repeats the
same query to multiple servers.

Catching
● Each time the server receives the query for a name that is not in
Iterative Resolution
domain it needs to search its database for a server IP address.
● Reduction in search time would increase the efficiency.
● DNS handles this with the mechanism called catching.
Resolution
● Reduction of search time would increase the efficiency.
● DNS handles this with the mechanism called catching.
● Catching speeds up resolution but it can also be problematic.
● If the server catches the mapping for a long time it may send an outdated mapping to the client.

Two counter techniques are used

⮚ The authoritative server always adds information to the mapping called time to live.

⮚ DNS requires each server keep a TTL counter for each mapping it caches.
DNS Messages
● DNS messages are of two types

⮚ Query
⮚ Response

● The query message consists of header and

question records.

● The response message consists of header, question

Query and Response Messages
records, answer records, authoritative records and
additional records.
DNS Messages
Header
● Both query and response message have the same
header format with some fields set to zero for query
messages.
● The header is of 12 bytes.
● Identification - 16 bit field used by client to match the
Header Format response with the query.
● Flags – 16 bit field consisting of the subfields.
● QR (Query/Response) – 1 bit sub field defines type of
message.
0 – message is query
1 – message is response
● OpCode - 4 bits, defines the type of query or response

Flags Field
0 – standard
1 – inverse
2 – server status request
DNS Messages
● AA (Authoritative Answer) – 1 bit subfield
Set to 1 - name server is the authoritative server
Used only in response message.
● TC (Truncate) – 1 bit subfield
Set to 1 – response was more than 512 bytes and
truncated
It is used when DNS uses the services of UDP
● RD (Recursion Desired) – 1 bit subfield
Flags Field Set to 1 – client desires a recursive answer
It is set in query message and repeated in the
response message
● RA (Recursion Available) – 1 bit subfield
Set in response, means that a recursive response
is available
Set only in response message
DNS Messages
● Reserved – 3 bit sub field set to 000.
rcode – 4 bit field shows status of error in response
Only authoritative server can make the judgement
Flags Field ● Number of question records – 16 bit field
Contains the number of queries in question section
of the message
● Number of answer records – 16 bit field
Contains the number of answer records in answer
section of the response message
● Number of authoritative records – 16 bit field
Contains number of authoritative records in
Values of rcode authoritative section of the response message
It’s value is zero in query message
● Number of additional records – 16 bit field
Contains number of additional records in additional
section of a response message
DNS Messages
● Question Section
Consists of one or more question records
It is present in both query and response messages
● Answer Section
Consists of two or more resource records
It is present only on response messages
● Authoritative Section
Consists of two or more resource records
It is present only on response messages
Gives information (domain name) about one or more authoritative servers for the query
● Additional Information Section
Consists of two or more resource records
It is present only on response messages
Gives additional information that helps the resolver
TELNET & SSH
TELNET

● TErminaL NETwork –remote login

● standard TCP/IP protocol for virtual terminal service as proposed by ISO.
● TELNET enables the establishment of a connection to a remote system in such a way that the local
terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
● TELNET is a general-purpose client-server application program
Concepts
a) Timesharing Environment

• All of the processing must be done by the central computer.

When a user types a character on the keyboard, the
Login

• Local login • Remote Login

b) Network Virtual Terminal (NVT)

• Heterogeneous networks
• remote computer- type of the computer to be known
• The client TELNET translates characters (data or commands) that come from the local terminal into NVT
form and delivers them to the network.
• The server TELNET, on the other hand, translates data and commands from NVT form into the form
acceptable by the remote computer.
NVT Character Set

● Data Characters called NVT ASCII.

● This is an 8-bit character set in which the seven lowest order
bits are the same as US ASCII and the highest order bit is 0
● Although it is possible to send an 8-bit ASCII (with the highest
order bit set to be 0 or 1)-must first be agreed upon between
the client and the server using option negotiation.
● To send control characters between computers (from client
to server or vice versa), NVT uses an 8-bit character set in
which the highest order bit is set to 1
c) Embedding Options

● TELNET uses only one TCP connection.

● The server uses the well-known port 23 and the client uses an
ephemeral port. Same connection is used for sending both data
and control characters. NVT character set for option negotiation

● TELNET accomplishes this by embedding the control characters in

the data stream.
● To distinguish data from control characters, each sequence of
control characters is preceded by a special control character called
interpret as control (IAC).
⮚ For example, imagine a user wants a server to display a file (file1)
on a remote server.
Backspace characters
cat file1
cat filea1
d)Symmetry

● the client and server are given equal opportunity NVT character set for sub option negotiation
● both are using a default TELNET implementation with no options
enabled.
● If one party wants an option enabled, it can offer or request. The
other party has the right to approve the offer or reject the request • To define the type or speed of a terminal,

if the party is not capable of using the option or does not want to the negotiation includes a string or a

use the option. number to define the type or speed

● This allows for the expansion of TELNET. A client or server can
install a more sophisticated version of TELNET with more options.
● When it is connected to a party, it can offer or request these new
options.
● If the other party also supports these options, the options can be
enabled; otherwise, they are rejected.
e) Controlling Server
f) Out of Band Signalling
Characters used to control a program running on remote server

Two different interruptions

Interrupting an application program

● Mode of Operation
(i) Character Mode- overhead created
● The user enters a character that is sent to the server
● The server acknowledges the received character and echoes the character back (in one segment).
● The client acknowledges the receipt of the echoed character.
(ii) Linear Mode
● Echoing, character erasing, line erasing, and so on) is done by the client.
● The client then sends TELNET AND SSH 623 the whole line to the server. Although the line mode looks
like the default mode, it is not.
● The default mode operates in the half-duplex mode; the line mode is full-duplex with the client
sending one line after another, without the need for an intervening GA (go ahead) character from the
server.
C) Default mode
• Used if no other modes are invoked through option negotiation.
• In this mode, the echoing is done by the client.
• The user types a character and the client echoes the character on the screen (or printer) but does not
send it until a whole line is completed.
• After sending the whole line to the server, the client waits for the GA (go ahead) command from the
server before accepting a new line from the user.
• The operation is half-duplex.
• Half-duplex operation is not efficient when the TCP connection itself is full-duplex, and so this mode is
becoming obsolete.
Interface Commands

● TELNET suffers from security problems.

● Although TELNET requires only a login name and password (when exchanging text)
For instance: A microcomputer connected to a broadcast LAN can easily eavesdrop using snooper software
and capture a login name and the corresponding password (even if it is encrypted)
Secure Shell (SSH)

● remote login application program

● Like TELNET, uses TCP as the underlying transport protocol
● SSH is more secure and provides more services than TELNET
● Versions - two versions of SSH: SSH-1 and SSH-2, which are totally incompatible. SSH-1 is now deprecated
because of security flaws in it. Now SSH-2 only used.
 SSH Packet Format

Port Forwarding

• Length. This 4-byte field defines the length of the packet including the
type, the data, and the CRC field, but not the padding and the length
field.
• Padding. One to eight bytes of padding is added to the packet to make
the attack on the security provision more difficult.
• Type. This one-byte field defines the type of the packet used by SSH
protocols.
• Data. This field is of variable length. The length of the data can be found
by deducting the five bytes from the value of the length field.
• CRC. The cyclic redundancy check filed is used for error detection
FTP & TFTP
FTP
● File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the standard mechanism provided by TCP/IP for copying a file from one host to another.
● FTP uses the services of TCP. It needs two TCP connections.
● The well-known port 21 is used for the control connection and the well-known port 20 for the data connection.
Control Connection

● The control connection is created in the same way as other application programs described so far. There are two steps:
• The server issues a passive open on the well-known port 21 and waits for a client.
• The client uses an ephemeral port and issues an active open.
Data Connection

FTP creates a data connection in the following ways:

● The client, not the server, issues a passive open using an ephemeral port. This must be done by the client because it is the
client that issues the commands for transferring files.
● The client sends this port number to the server using the PORT command (we will discuss this command shortly).
● The server receives the port number and issues an active open using the wellknown port 20 and the received ephemeral
port number.
Communication

Two ways

Communication Over Control Connection

Communication Over Data Connection

FTP can transfer one of the following file types across the data connection:
● ASCII file. This is the default format for transferring text files. Each character is encoded using NVT ASCII. The sender
transforms the file from its own representation into NVT ASCII characters and the receiver transforms the NVT ASCII
characters to its own representation.
● EBCDIC file. If one or both ends of the connection use EBCDIC encoding, the file can be transferred using EBCDIC
encoding.
● Image file. This is the default format for transferring binary files. The file is sent as continuous streams of bits without
any interpretation or encoding. This is mostly used to transfer binary files such as compiled programs
If the file is encoded in ASCII or EBCDIC, another attribute must be added to define the printability of the file.
● Nonprint This is the default format for transferring a text file. This means that the file cannot be printed without further
processing because there are no characters to be interpreted for vertical movement of the print head. This format is used
for files that will be stored and processed later.
● TELNET In this format the file contains NVT ASCII vertical characters such as CR (carriage return), LF (line feed), NL
(new line), and VT (vertical tab). The file is printable after transfer.
Data Structure
FTP can transfer a file across the data connection using one of the following interpretations about the structure of the data:
● File structure (default). The file has no structure. It is a continuous stream of bytes.
● Record structure. The file is divided into records. This can be used only with text files.
● Page structure. The file is divided into pages, with each page having a page number and a page header. The pages can be
stored and accessed randomly or sequentially.
Transmission mode- three types
● Stream mode: default mode. Data are delivered from FTP to TCP as a continuous stream of bytes. TCP is responsible for
chopping data into segments of appropriate size. If the data is simply a stream of bytes (file structure), no end-of-file is
needed. End-of-file in this case is the closing of the data connection by the sender. If the data are divided into records (record
structure), each record will have a 1-byte end-of-record (EOR) character and the end of the file will have a 1-byte end-of-file
(EOF) character.
● Block mode. Data can be delivered from FTP to TCP in blocks. In this case, each block is preceded by a 3-byte header. The
first byte is called the block descriptor; the next two bytes define the size of the block in bytes.
● Compressed mode. Big Files. The compression method normally used is run-length encoding. In this method, consecutive
appearances of a data unit are replaced by one occurrence and the number of repetitions. In a text file, this is usually spaces
(blanks). In a binary file, null characters are usually compressed.
Command Processing File Management Commands

Access Commands

File transfer commands

Data formatting commands

Miscellaneous commands

Port defining commands

Responses

• Responses Every FTP command generates at least one response.

• A response has two parts: a three digit number followed by text.
⮚ The numeric part defines the code; the text part defines needed parameters or extra explanations.

File Transfer
Anonymous FTP

● To use FTP, a user needs an account (user name) and a password on the remote server.
● Some sites have a set of files available for public access.
● To access these files, a user does not need to have an account or password.
● Instead, the user can use anonymous as the user name and guest as the password.
● User access to the system is very limited.
● Some sites allow anonymous users only a subset of commands.
● For example, most sites allow the user to copy some files, but do not allow navigation through the directories.
Security for FTP

● The FTP protocol was designed when the security was not a big issue.
● Although FTP requires a password, the password is sent in plaintext (unencrypted), which means it can be intercepted
and used by an attacker.
● The data transfer connection also transfers data in plaintext, which is insecure.
● To be secure, one can add a Secure Socket Layer between the FTP application layer and the TCP layer : SSL-FTP.
FTP Vs TFTP
TFTP
● TFTP is good for simple file
transfers, such as during RRQ format
boot time fits on ROM
requires only IP & UDP
WRQ format
● No security for TFTP. TFTP
can read or write a file for
the client
Data format

ACK format Error format

Error numbers and their meanings Connection establishment
Server’s apprentice bug
UDP port numbers used by TFTP

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

TFTP example

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Use of TFTP with DHCP
• It can be used to initialize devices such as
bridges or routers.
• Its main application is with the DHCP.
• TFTP requires only a small amount of memory
and uses only the services of UDP and IP.
• It can easily be configured in ROM (or PROM).
• When the station is powered on, TFTP will be
connected to a server and can download the
configuration files from there.
• The powered-on station uses the DHCP client
to get the name of the configuration file from
the DHCP server.
• The station then passes the name of the file to
the TFTP client to get the contents of the
configuration file from the TFTP server.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
WWW Architecture
WWW Architecture
● WWW is a networked information system (repository of information) and it provides distributed client-
server service, in which a client using a browser can access a service using a server.

● Sites

● Web pages (simple / composite)

Request

Client Server
Response
Hypertext and Hypermedia
● Hypertext –creating a document that in turn refer to other
document. In a hypertext document, a part of text can be
defined as a link to another document.
● Hypermedia is a term applied to document that contains
links to other textual document or documents containing
graphics, video, or audio.
Web Client (Browser)
● It is an application software that allows us to view and
explore information on the web. User can request for any
web page by just entering a URL into address bar.
● Web browser can show text, audio, video, animation and
more. It is the responsibility of a web browser to interpret
text and commands contained in the web page.
● A variety of vendors offer commercial browsers that
interpret and display a Web document, and all of them use
nearly the same architecture. Each browser usually consists
Web Server
● Web site is collection of web pages while web server is a
software that respond to the request for web resources.
● When client sends request for a web page, the web server
search for the requested page if requested page is found
then it will send it to client with an HTTP response.
● If the requested web page is not found, web server will the
send an HTTP response : Error 404 Not found.
● A server can also become more efficient through
multithreading or multiprocessing. In this case, a server can
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
● A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is a unique identifier
used to locate a resource on the internet.

● Protocol - client-server application program used to retrieve

Web Documents
Static Documents
● The author of a static document determines the contents at
the time the document is written.
● Since the contents do not change, each request for a static
document results in exactly the same response.
● Static documents are prepared using – HTML, XML, XSL,
XHTML.
Dynamic Documents
● A dynamic web document does not exist in a
predefined form.
● When a request arrives the web server runs
an application program that creates the
document.
● The server returns the output of the
program as a response to the browser that
requested the document.
● Since a fresh document is created for each
request, the contents of a dynamic document
can vary from one request to another.
● Technologies involved – PHP, JSP, ASP etc.
● Dynamic documents are sometimes referred
to as server-site dynamic documents.
Active Documents

●An active web document consists of a

computer program that the server
sends to the browser and that the
browser must run locally.
●When it runs, the active document
program can interact with the user and
change the display continuously.
●Active documents are sometimes
referred to as client-site dynamic
documents.
HTTP
HTTP
● The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a protocol used
mainly to access data on the World Wide Web.
● HTTP functions as a combination of FTP and SMTP.
● HTTP uses the services of TCP on well-known port 80.
HTTP Transaction
● The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a protocol used
mainly to access data on the World Wide Web.
● HTTP functions as a combination of FTP and SMTP.
● HTTP uses the services of TCP on well-known port 80.

● Request message
● Request Line
HTTP Transaction (Cont . . .)
● Format of request message and response message
Conditional Request
● Request based on condition is possible.
● If condition is met, server sends it; else client is informed
about it.
● Example conditions - time and date the Web page is
modified.
○ Request
GET http://www.commonServer.com/information/file1
HTTP/1.1
Persistence
● HTTP version 1.1 specifies a persistent connection by
default.
● Connection is left open for more requests.
● Connection will be closed only after a request or if a time-
out is reached.
● Length of data is sent by the sender on each response, but if
it is unknown (Dynamic documents) then the server informs
client and closes the connection.
Cookies
● It is a small piece of data stored in users system by the
browser while browsing a website.
● When the client receives the response from server on
request, the browser stores the cookie in the cookie
directory.
● Next time, when a client sends a request to a server, the
browser looks in the cookie directory to
● see if it can find a cookie sent by that server. If found, the
cookie is included in the request.
Web caching: Proxy server
● Proxy server acts as a gateway between client and server.
● It keeps copies of responses to recent requests.
● On receiving the request from client, proxy server checks its
cache and if it is not found then the request is sent to
corresponding server.
● This reduces the load on the original server, decreases
traffic, and improves latency.
● However, to use the proxy server, the client must be
configured to access the proxy instead of the target server.
HTTP security
● HTTPS provides confidentiality, client and server
authentication, and data integrity.
DHCP
Introduction
● Every computer that utilizes TCP/IP protocol should know its IP address.

● In addition to this, Subnet mask is also needed, if the computer is under a subnet.

● The other two information needed for most of the recent machines are

• The default router’s address – to interface with other

networks
• The name server’s address – to use names rather than
addresses.
DHCP (Definition)
● It is a Client/server protocol to provide the four required parameters to a diskless machine to enable

the machine communicate with other networks .

DHCP Operation
● The operation is initiated with a broadcasting request by the client depending upon the client and
server’s location, which could be any one of the following
● Same network - Client and server are present on the same network
● Different network - Client and server are present on different network
Same Network
Same network Operation
● A open command is provided by the server on UDP port number 67.
● Server waits for the client to respond
● The server gets the response from the booted client on port number 68
● A connection is now established between the source port 67 and destination port 68 by the server
acknowledging with either a broadcast or unicast message.
Different network
Different network Operation
● As the client is unaware of the server, a DHCP request is broadcasted.
● A relay agent (host) is used, as the router discards the broadcasted IP datagram.
● This relay agent is aware of the server’s address and hence listens on UDP port 67 for the messages
● The received message is enfold in a unicast datagram (with the destination address) and sent to the
server by the relay.
● It reaches the server through any router
UDP ports
UDP Ports
● Port 67 - used by server (Common)
● Port 68 - used by client (to overcome the demultiplexing issue)
● Consider the below scenario

■ Host A uses DHCP client

■ Host B uses DAYTIME client
■ (both are in the same network and uses ephermal
port 2017)
■ A broadcast message is sent from the server as an
UDP ports (Contd..)
• This message contains the destination port 2017 and
broadcast IP address FFFFFFFF16
• Host A finds a message from application program on
2017
• A correct message and incorrect message is delivered
to DHCP and DAYTIME clients respectively
• Transaction ID is also used to identify the clients
TFTP
● It is an acknowledgement from the server, containing the pathname of a file which has the complete
booting information.
Error control
● To take a control over the lost or damaged response, DHCP requires

■ Checksum

■ Retransmission

● To prevent traffic jam (Created by retransmission)

■ Random numbers for timers are used

Packet Format
Packet Format (Contd..)
● Operation code (8 bit) – Variant of DHCP
● Hardware type (8 bit) - variant of physical network
● Hardware length (8 bit) - length of physical address in bytes
● Hop count (8 bit) - Maximum number of hops
● Transaction ID (4 byte) - To match a reply with the request
Packet Format (Contd..)
● Number of seconds (16 bit) – Time elapsed to boot the client
● Flag (16 bit) – left-most bit is used leaving the remaining bits to be zero.
● Client IP address (4 byte) – holds client’s IP address
● Server IP address (4 byte) - holds server’s IP address
Packet Format (Contd..)
● Gateway IP address (4 byte) – holds router’s IP address
● Client Hardware address – Client’s physical address
● Server name (64 byte) – holds server’s domain name
● Boot file name (128 byte) – Holds path name
● Options (64 byte) – carries either vendor information or other additional information.
CONFIGURATION
Static address allocation
● A database is used to match physical address to IP address.
● DHCP is backward compatible in this case
Dynamic address allocation
• An additional database containing the unused IP
addresses.
• On request from a client, an IP address (temporary )
from this database is allocated to the requesting client on
lease.
• This is based on the entry in the static database.

• This allocation is essential when there is a transfer of

Transition states
● To enable dynamic address allocation, the machine passes through several transitions
● The type of the transition is indicated tag 53.
States
● INIT state – Client initiates by sending DHCPDISCOVER message
● SELECTING STATE – SERVERS offers DHCPOFFER message. Client has to select one among the offers.
Client sends DHCPREQUEST message to the selected server.
● REQUESTING STATE – Until the client receives DHCPACK message, it stays in the same state
States (Contd..)
● BOUND STATE – Client uses the IP address until the lease expires. DHCPREQUEST is again initiated by
the client to renew the lease when 50% of the lease period is expired.
● RENEWING STATE – If DHCPACK is received, client gets back to BOUND state otherwise enters into the
REBINDING state after 87.5% of time expires
States (Contd..)
● REBINDING STATE – The client does the following

• DHCPNACK / lease expired – Client goes to the

initializing state and gets new IP address.
• DHCPACK – It goes to the bound state – resets timer.
E - Mail: SMTP, POP, IMAP, and
MIME
Discussion On
• Architecture
• User agent
• Message transfer agent
• Message access agent
• MIME
Architecture
● We have 4 scenarios in explain the architecture of e-mail.

• First Scenario
• Second Scenario
• Third Scenario
• Fourth Scenario
First scenario

• The sender and the receiver of the e-mail are users on the same mail server; they are directly connected to
a shared mail server.

• The admin has created one mailbox to store the received messages. Only the sender or the receiver of the
mailbox has access to it.
First scenario(Contd..)
• When Alice needs to send a message to Bob, she runs a user
agent( is a program) to prepare the message and store it in
Bob’s mailbox.

• The message has the sender and recipient mailbox addresses.

Bob can retrieve and read the contents of his mailbox at his
convenience using a user agent.
Second scenario
Second scenario (Contd..)
• Here, the sender and the receiver of the e-mail are users on two different mail servers. The message needs
to be sent over the Internet. Here we need user agents (UAs) and message transfer agents (MTAs)

• Alice needs to use a user agent to send her message to the mail server at her own site. The mail server at
her site uses a buffer (queue) to store messages waiting to be sent.

• Bob also needs a user agent to retrieve messages stored in the mailbox of the system at his site. Here two
message transfer agents are needed: one client and one server.

• The server needs to run all of the time because it does not know when a client will ask for a connection.
The client, on the other hand, can be triggered by the system when there is a message in the queue to be
sent.
Third scenario
Third scenario (Contd..)
• Alice needs a user agent to prepare her message. She then needs to send the message through the LAN or
WAN.

• This can be done through a pair of message transfer agents (client and server). Whenever Alice has a
message to send, she calls the user agent which, in turn, calls the MTA client.

• The MTA client establishes a connection with the MTA server on the system, which is running
continuously. The system at Alice’s site queues all messages received.

• It then uses an MTA client to share the messages to the system at Bob’s site; the system receives the
message and stores it in Bob’s mailbox.
Fourth scenario
Fourth scenario (Contd..)
• Here, Bob is also connected to his mail server by a WAN or a LAN. After the message has arrived at Bob’s
mail server, Bob needs to retrieve it.

• Here, we need another set of client-server agents, which we call message access agents (MAAs).

• Bob uses an MAA client to retrieve his messages. The client sends a request to the MAA server, which is
running all the time, and requests the transfer of the messages.

• Bob cannot bias the mail server to use the MTA server directly. To use the MTA server directly, Bob would
need to run the MTA server all the time because he does not know when a message will arrive.
Push vs Pull
o Here, Bob needs another pair of client-server programs: message access programs. This is because an
MTA client-server program is a push program:

o The client pushes the message to the server. Bob needs a pull program. The client needs to pull the
message from the server.
User Agent
• The first component of an electronic mail system is the user agent (UA). It provides service to the user to
make the process of sending and receiving a message easier.

• Services Provided by a User Agent

• User Agent Types
• Sending Mail
• Receiving Mail
• Addresses
• Mailing List or Group List
Message transfer agent
• The actual mail transfer is done through message transfer agents (MTAs). To send mail, a system must
have the client MTA, and to receive mail, a system must have a server MTA.
• The formal protocol that defines the MTA client and server in the Internet is called Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP).
SMTP range
SMTP range (Contd..)
● SMTP is used two times, between the sender and the sender’s mail server and between the two mail
servers. SMTP defines how commands and responses must be sent back and forth
Commands and responses

● SMTP uses commands and responses to transfer messages between an MTA client and an MTA server.
 Commands
● Commands are sent from the client to the server.
Responses

● Responses are sent from the server to the client. A response is a

Connection establishment

• The server sends code 220 to tell the client that it is ready to receive mail.
• The client sends the HELO message to identify itself using its domain name address. This step is necessary
to inform the server of the domain name of the client.
• The server responds with code 250
Mail Transfer
• The client sends the message to introduce the sender of the message. It includes the mail address of the
sender. This step is needed to give the server the return mail address for reporting messages.
• The server responds with code.
• The client sends the message, which includes the mail, that address of the recipient.
• The server responds with code.
• The client sends the DATA message to initialize the message transfer.
• The server responds with code to start mail input.
• The client sends the contents of the message in consecutive lines. Each line is terminated by a two-
character end-of-line token.
• The server responds with code.
Mail transfer
Connection termination

● When the message is transferred successfully, the client terminates the connection.
Message access agent
• The first and the second stages of mail delivery use SMTP. Here, SMTP is not involved in the third stage
because SMTP is a push protocol; it pushes the message from the client to the server.
• The third stage needs a pull protocol; the client must pull messages from the server. The direction of the
bulk data are from the server to the client.
• The third stage uses a message access agent. Currently two message access protocols are available: Post
Office Protocol, version 3 (POP3) and Internet Mail Access Protocol, version 4 (IMAP4).
POP3 & IMAP4
POP3(Post Office Protocol, version 3):
• The client POP3 software is installed on the recipient computer; the server POP3 software is installed
on the mail server. Mail access starts with the client when the user needs to download its e-mail from
the mailbox.
• The client opens a connection to the server on TCP port. It then sends its user name and password to
access the mailbox. The user can then list and retrieve the mail messages, one by one.
POP3 & IMAP4 (Contd..)
IMAP4(Internet Mail Access Protocol, version 4): It is more powerful and more complex.
IMAP4 provides the following extra functions:
o A user can check the e-mail header prior to downloading.
o A user can search the contents of the e-mail for a specific string of characters prior to downloading.
o A user can partially download e-mail. This is especially useful if bandwidth is limited and the e-mail
contains multimedia with high bandwidth requirements.
o A user can create, delete, or rename mailboxes on the mail server.
o A user can create a hierarchy of mailboxes in a folder for e-mail storage.
MIME
• E - mail has a simple structure. It can send messages only in NVT 7-bit ASCII format. Multipurpose
Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) is a supplementary protocol that allows non-ASCII data to be sent
through e-mail.
• MIME transforms non-ASCII data at the sender site to NVT ASCII data and delivers it to the client MTA
to be sent through the Internet.
• The message at the receiving site is transformed back to the original data.
MIME header
MIME header (Contd..)
● MIME-Version: This header defines the version of MIME used. The current version is 1.1.

● Content-Type :

• This header defines the type of data used in the body of

the message. The content type and the content subtype
are separated by a slash.
• Depending on the subtype, the header may contain other
parameters.
Data Type and Subtype in MIME
Content Transfer Encoding
● Content-Transfer-Encoding: This header defines the method used to encode the messages into 0s and 1s for
transport:

● The five types of encoding methods are listed

THANK YOU