STRUCTURES AND

ITS PROPERTIES

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Organic chemistry is the chemistry of the compounds of
carbon.
 When chemical compounds were divided into two classes, inorganic
and organic, depending upon where they had come from.
 Inorganic compounds were those obtained from minerals; organic
compounds were those obtained from vegetable or animal sources
 Indeed, until about 1850 many chemists believed that organic
compounds must have their origin in living organisms. consequently
could never be synthesized from inorganic material.
 Compounds of carbon, and their molecules can be so large and
complex. The number of compounds that contain carbon is many times
greater than the number of compounds that do not contain carbon.
 Carbon atoms can attach themselves to one another to an extent not
possible for atoms of any other element. Carbon atoms can form
chains thousands of atoms long, or rings of all sizes; the chains and
rings can have branches and crosslinks.
The structural theory:
The structural theory is the conceptual framework that
describes how atoms come together to form molecules. The relationship
between the electrons holding together atoms and the order in which
they are connected to one another is the subject of structural theory. It
has to do with the sizes, shapes, and distribution of electrons across the
molecules that these atoms make.
CHEMICAL BOND:
The forces that holds atoms together in a molecule.
In 1916, two kinds of bonds were described:
1. Ionic bond (by Walther Kossel)
2. Covalent bond (by Lewis)
A positively charged nucleus is surrounded by electrons arranged in
concentric shells or energy levels. There is a maximum number of electrons
that can be accommodated in each shell.
The greatest stability is reached when the outer shell is full, as in the noble
gases.
Both ionic and covalent bonds arise from the tendency of atoms to attain this
stable configuration of electrons.
Ionic Bond:
The ionic bond results from transfer of electrons. For example, in sodium
chloride
Covalent bond:
The covalent bond results from sharing of electrons.
Valency of atoms:
The valency of an atom is a measure of its ability to form
chemical bonds with other atoms. It is often determined by the number
of electrons an atom can gain, lose, or share to achieve a stable
electron configuration.
The valency of an atom is equal to the number of electrons in
the outer shell if that number is four or less. Otherwise, the valency is
equal to eight minus the number of electrons in the outer shell.
Co-ordinate bond:
A Co-ordinate bond is a type of alternate covalent bond that is
formed by sharing of an electron pair from a single atom. Both shared
electrons are donated by the same atom. It is also called a dative bond
or dipolar bond.
Hybridisation:
Hybridization is the concept of mixing atomic orbitals into new
hybrid orbitals (with different energies, shapes, etc., than the component
atomic orbitals) suitable for the pairing of electrons to form chemical
bonds in valence bond theory.
Hybridization is the term applied to the mixing of atomic orbitals in an
atom (usually a central atom) to generate a set of equivalent hybrid
orbitals.
Valence bond theory assumes that a covalent bond is formed when: 1-
atomic orbital of one atom merges with that of another atom. The orbitals
are then said to share a common region of space, or to overlap. 2- Overlap
results in energy release, therefore the energy of the system reaches a
minimum and is most stable
 sp3

hybridisation

sp2 sp
Polarity of Bonds:
The bond or the molecular polarities are related to the
electronegativities of the atoms or the molecules.
A molecule can basically be either polar molecule or non-polar
molecule.
Polar Molecule:
A polar molecule had positive charges at one end and at the
opposite end of the molecule it has negative charges. Thus, they end up
creating an electrical pole.
The entire molecule will be a polar molecule. Example H2O is
polar molecule.
Electronegativity:
Electronegativity of an element is the tendency of its atoms to
attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself in a covalent bond.
An sp-hybridized carbon is more electronegative than sp2 hybridized
carbon. This is, in turn, more electronegative than an sp3 hybridized
carbon.
The electronegativity of an element increases with the oxidation
state of the element.
The carbon atom in CF3I acquires greater positive charge than in

CH3I . The electronegativity values for the elements increases along a

period from left to right and decreases down a group.
Non – Polar Molecules:
A molecule which does not have the charges present at the end
due to the reason that electrons are finely distributed and those which
symmetrically cancel out each other are the non- polar molecules. In a
solution, we cannot mix a polar molecule with the non-polar molecule.
For example, consider water and oil. In this solution, water is the polar
molecule. On the other hand, oil behaves as a non-polar molecule. These
two molecules do not form a solution. This is because they cannot ever be
mixed up.
 When the electronegativity of the two atoms forming a bond is
different, the shared pair of electrons is attracted more towards the more
electronegative element atom. Therefore, the more electronegative atom
acquires a partial negative charge and the less electronegative atoms
acquire a partial positive charge. As a result, two poles are developed and
the molecule is said to be Polar. For eg, HF, HCl, HBr, HI
Oxidation Number:
Oxidation number is the number of electrons atom gain or
loses in a chemical compound to form a chemical bond with another
atom. It is the charge an atom appears to have when all other atoms
are removed from it as ions. The loss or gain of an electron is also
known as the degree of oxidation. The combination of the lose and gain
of an electron is known as Redox reaction. Oxidation number is also
known as Oxidation state, which can be zero, positive or negative. The
oxidation number of atoms in O2, O3, P4, and S8 is zero.
Polarity of Molecules:
Bond polarities are initially concerned with both physical and
chemical properties. The polarity of bond can profoundly leads to polarity
of molecule which affects the melting point, boiling point and solubility.
The polarity of bond determines the kind of reaction that takes
place in the bond and even affects the reactivity of the bond.

Polarity of molecules :
The polarity of the molecule is the sum of the bond polarities in the
molecule.
A molecule is said to be polar if the centre of negative charge does not
coincide with the centre of negative charge. Such molecule conists of a
DIPOLE.
 INTRAMOLECULAR AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

 Intramolecular Forces - The forces between atoms or ions inside a

compound such as covalent and ionic bonding (determines the
stability of a comound)
 H-O-H  2H + O E = 920 kJ/mol
 Intermolecular Forces - The forces between individual particles.
(determines the phase a compound is in at room temperature)

 H2O(l )  H2O(g) E=40.7 kJ/mol

 note: Ionic bonding falls under both categories.

 ION-ION INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

 E q+q-)/d
 ionic compounds have strong Intermolecular forces
 solids at room temperature and they have high m.p.
 ionic compounds with mulitiply charged ions generally
have higher m.p. than those with singly charged ions
 NaCl mp 801oC

 CaF2 mp 1180oC

 CaO mp 2580oC
ION-DIPOLE & DIPOLE-DIPOLE INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Polar covalent molecules undergo Dipole-Dipole intermolecular
interactions which are much weaker than ion-ion intermolecular
interactions (E q+q-)/d2). Therefore, polar covalent molecules
ar generally liquids at room temperature.
Ion-Dipole Dipole-Dipole
 HYDROGEN BONDING
 Hydrogen bonding occurs among polar covalent
molecules containing a hydrogen bonded to F, O or N.
DISPERSION FORCES
Dispersion forces - weak attractive forces that all molecules have.
dispersion forces are the only intermolecular interaction that small,
non-polar molecules undergo. (generally gases at room temp.)

The more electrons a molecule/atom has,

the stronger the dispersion force
  Intermolecular Force state
 (room temp.)
 Strongest Ion-Ion Solid

 Ion-Dipole liquid
 intermediate hydrogen bonding liquid
 Dipole-Dipole liquid

 weakest dispersion gas