GEOGRAPHY

CHAPTER 4 CLIMATE
Climate refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period of
time (more than thirty years).

Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point in time.
The elements of weather and climate are the same, i.e. temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity
and precipitation.
On the basis of the monthly atmospheric conditions, the year is divided into seasons such as:
•Winter
•Summer
•Rainy Seasons

Q.1 Why does India have a monsoon type of Climate?

Ans. India has a monsoon climate as its climate is influenced by the monsoon winds or the weather
conditions that change from season to season.
This happens due to the differential heating of land and water bodies and pressure situations. In
India, the monsoon usually lasts from July to September and 80 to 90 per cent of rainfall is due to the
monsoon. The summer monsoon causes heavy rain when they blow from sea to land, while the winter
monsoon winds blow from the interior of the continents to the sea and do not cause much rain.
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapour and dust particles.

GASES

Nitrogen – 78.089%

Oxygen – 20.95%

Carbon dioxide – 0.04%

Other gases - .96%

 Water Vapour

• Water vapour is also a variable gas in the atmosphere, which decreases with
altitude.
• In the warm and wet tropics, it may account for four per cent of the air by
volume, while in the dry and cold areas of desert and polar regions, it may
be less than one per cent of the air.
• Water vapour also decreases from the equator towards the poles
 Dust Particles
• Atmosphere has a sufficient capacity to keep small solid particles, which may originate
from different sources and include sea salts, fine soil, ash, dust etc.

• Dust and salt particles act as hygroscopic(tending to absorb moisture from the
air)nuclei(tiny particles in the air on which water vapor condenses) around which water
vapour condenses to produce clouds.
 STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

• The atmosphere consists of different layers with varying density and temperature.
• Density is highest near the surface of the earth and decreases with increasing altitude.
• The column of atmosphere is divided into five different layers depending upon the
temperature condition.
• They are: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.
 The troposphere
• It is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere.
• Its average height is 13 km and extends roughly to a height of 8 km near the poles
and about 18 km at the equator.
• Thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the equator because heat is transported
to great heights by strong convectional currents.
• This layer contains dust particles and water vapour.
• All changes in climate and weather take place in this layer.
• The temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of 1 C for every 165m of
height.
• This is the most important layer for all biological activity.
Q2. What are the controls affecting the climate of India?
The climate of any place depends on the following factors:
1) Latitude
The amount of solar energy received varies according to latitude due to the curvature of the earth. That’s why air
temperature generally decreases from the equator towards the poles.
2) Altitude
The atmosphere becomes less dense, and temperature decreases when we go to a higher altitude from the Earth’s
surface. This is the reason why hills are cooler during summer.
3) Pressure and wind system
The pressure and wind system of any area depend on the latitude and altitude of the place. It influences the
temperature and rainfall pattern.
4) Distance from the sea
The sea exerts a moderating influence on the climate. As the distance from the sea increases, its moderating
influence decreases and people experience extreme weather conditions. This condition is known
as continentality, i.e. very hot during summers and very cold during winters.
5) Ocean currents
Ocean currents, along with onshore winds, affect the climate of the coastal areas. For example, any coastal area
with warm or cold currents flowing past it will be warmed or cooled if the winds are onshore.
6) Relief features
Relief plays a major role in determining the climate of a place. High mountains act as barriers to cold or hot winds.
They may also cause precipitation if they are high enough and lie in the path of rain-bearing winds. Precipitation is
any form of moisture which falls to the earth. It includes rain, snow, hail and sleet.
Factors Affecting India’s Climate
Three Heat zones of Earth
 Latitude

The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country from the
Rann of Kuchchh in the west to Mizoram in the east. India’s climate has
characteristics of tropical as well as subtropical climates.
 Altitude

India has mountains to the north and also has a vast coastal
area where the maximum elevation is about 30 meters.

Owing to the mountains, the subcontinent experiences

comparatively milder winters as compared to central Asia.
 Pressure and winds

The climate and weather conditions in India are

governed by the following atmospheric conditions:

•Pressure and surface winds

•Upper air circulation

•Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical

cyclones
 Cell formation

 What is global atmospheric circulation?

 The Earth is surrounded by a thin layer of air called the atmosphere. The air in the
atmosphere moves in response to differences in temperature at the equator (warm)
and the poles (cold). This movement of air is called global atmospheric
circulation.
Global atmospheric circulation model
[Link] cell – At low latitudes, air moves toward the equator, where it is heated and rises
vertically. In the upper atmosphere, air moves poleward. This forms a convection cell that
covers tropical and sub-tropical climates. This cell is named for English physicist and
meteorologist George Hadley, who proposed the single circulation for each hemisphere in
1735.

2. Ferrel cell – In this mid-latitude atmospheric circulation cell, air near the surface flows
poleward and eastward, while air higher in the atmosphere moves equatorward and westward.
Proposed by William Ferrell in 1856, it was the first to account for westerly winds between
35° and 60° N/S, which are caused by friction, not heat differences at the equator and poles.

3. Polar cell – At higher latitudes, air rises and travels toward the poles. Once over the poles,
the air sinks, forming areas of high atmospheric pressure called the polar highs. At the surface,
air moves outward from the polar highs, creating east-blowing surface winds called polar
easterlies. It is the smallest and weakest of the cells
 Pressure and wind
 Atmospheric pressure, force per unit area exerted by an atmospheric column (that is, the entire body of air
above the specified area).
 The air is set in motion due to the differences in atmospheric pressure.
 The air in motion is called wind.
 The winds blows from HP-LP
 The Horizontal winds near the earth surface respond the combined effect of three forces.(They affect the
velocity and direction of wind)
1. Pressure Gradient Force - The pressure gradient is the rate of change of pressure with respect to distance.
Wind movement is caused by the Pressure Gradient Force, which operates from a high-pressure area to a
low-pressure area.
2. Friction force- It is the force that resists motion when the surface of one object comes in contact with the
surface of another.
3. Coriolis force- Because the Earth rotates on its axis, circulating air is deflected toward the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and toward the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
 Pressure and Surface Winds
• India lies in the region of North-Easterly surface winds.
• These winds originate during winter from the subtropical high-pressure belt of the Northern
hemisphere.
• These winds blow South, get deflected to the right due to the Coriolis force and move towards
the equatorial-low pressure region.
• These winds originate and blow over land and hence, carry very little moisture.
• Therefore, they bring no rain or very little rain. ( India should have been an arid ,but it is not
so. why?)
• The unique feature of Indian pressure and wind conditions is its complete reversal.
• During winter, high-pressure areas develop over the areas North of the Himalayas.
• This causes cold dry winds to blow from the area towards low-pressure areas over the
oceans to the South.
In summer, low-pressure area develops over interior Asia and North-Western India. Air from
high-pressure areas blows towards this region resulting in a complete reversal of wind direction.
These winds from the high-pressure rea of the Southern Indian ocean cross the equator and
turns right towards low-pressure areas of the Indian sub-continent. These winds gather large
moisture while moving over the warm ocean and bring widespread rainfall over the mainland of
India. These winds are known as the South-West Monsoon winds.
These winds blow over the warm oceans, gather moisture and
bring widespread rainfall over the mainland of India.
 The upper air circulation
 The upper air circulation in this region is dominated by a westerly flow. An
important component of this flow is the jet stream. These jet streams are
located approximately over 27°-30° north latitude, therefore, they are known
as subtropical westerly jet streams. Over India, these jet streams blow south of
the Himalayas, all through the year except in summer.
 JET STREAMS - Jet streams are fast flowing, narrow meandering air currents
in the atmosphere of the Earth. Jet streams on earth are westerly winds as in
flowing west to east and may start, stop and split into two or more streams. Jet
streams form when warm air masses meet cold air masses in the atmosphere.
Q. What are jet streams and how do they affect the climate of India?
Ans. They are the fast flowing, narrow, and meandering air currents in the atmosphere of Earth. They
affected the climate of India in the following ways:-

[Link] jet streams impact the onset of monsoon which depends upon the upper air circulation
dominated by Sub Tropical Jet Streams (STJ). The south west monsoon in India is directly related to
the tropical easterly stream.

2. The north east monsoon or more commonly called the winter monsoon is related to the subtropical
westerly Jet Stream. It is a cold wind which pushes downwind to the surface thereby creating a high
pressure on the surface.
3. Then the dry winds from this high pressure area which is in the north western part of India, start
blowing towards the low pressure area or the Bay of Bengal. These winds are also responsible for the
cold waves flowing in winter in the northern part of the country including UP and Bihar.
4. After reaching the Bay of Bengal, the westerly jet streams form the cause of north east monsoon and as this
wind reaches the coast of Tamil Nadu, it causes rainfall due to the humidity received from the Bay of Bengal.
Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical
cyclones.
 The western cyclonic disturbances experienced in the north and
north-western parts of the country are brought in by this westerly
flow. In summer, the subtropical westerly jet stream moves north
of the Himalayas with the apparent movement of the sun. An
easterly jet stream, called the sub-tropical easterly jet stream
blows over peninsular India, approximately over 14°N during the
summer months.
 Western Cyclonic Disturbances

The western cyclonic disturbances are weather phenomena of

the winter months brought in by the westerly flow from the Mediterranean
region. They usually influence the weather of the north and north-western
regions of India. Tropical cyclones occur during the monsoon as well as in
October - November, and are part of the easterly flow. These disturbances
affect the coastal regions of the country. Have you read or heard about the
disasters caused by them on Orissa and Andhra Pradesh coast?
Q3. Why rainfall decreases form east to west in plains region (Indus-Ganga Plains)?
Ans. Rainfall decreases form east to west in plains region (Indus-Ganga Plains) because of the
following reasons:-
1. In summer, there are many minor low pressure cells that exist all over the plain region.
2. As the monsoon winds move from east to west the moisture levels decrease due to successive
rainfall at each low pressure regions.
3. By the time winds reach western parts of the plains (Delhi, Haryana etc.) all the moisture in the
monsoon winds in exhausted.

Then how come Haryana and Punjab not deserts like Rajasthan?
They receive rainfall due to Western Disturbances in winter. (In summer the rainfall is very low.)
Q4. Why are some parts in peninsular India semi-arid?
1. Places on the windward side of an orographic barrier receive great amount of rainfall where as those on
the leeward side remain arid to semi-arid due to rain-shadow effect.
2. Example: The south-west monsoon winds from the Arabian sea strike almost perpendicular at the
Western Ghats and cause copious rainfall in the Western Coastal plain and the western slopes of the
Western Ghats.
3. On the contrary, vast areas of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu lie in
rain-shadow or leeward side of the Western Ghats and receive scanty rainfall.
THE SEASONS
 The seasons
 Four main seasons can be identified in India –
1. The cold weather season,
2. The hot weather season,
3. The advancing monsoon and
4. The retreating monsoon with some regional variations.
 The cold weather season
 November – March. January is the coldest month.
 Sun’s apparent path is to the south of equator.
 Clear sky, pleasant weather, low temperature, low humidity, high range of temperature, cool
and slow north-east trade winds.

 The diurnal range of temperature, especially in interior parts of the country, is very high.
 Temperature in Winter season

The temperature decreases from south to the north.

The average temperature of Chennai, on the eastern coast, is
between 24°– 25° Celsius, while in the northern plains, it ranges
between 10°C and 15° Celsius.
Days are warm and nights are cold. Frost is common in the north
and the higher slopes of the Himalayas experience snowfall.
 Pressure in Winter Season
 High air pressure prevails over large parts of north-west India due to low temperatures coupled with
divergence induced by the ridge of the STJ.
 Pressure is comparatively lower in south India.
 The winds start blowing from high pressure area of north-west to low pressure area of south-east.
The wind velocity is low due to low pressure gradient.
 The path of the winds depend on pressure gradient and physiography.
Western Disturbances in Winter Season
•The spell of fine weather over north-western and northern India is often broken due to inflow of western disturbances.
•They intensify over Rajasthan, Punjab, and Haryana.
•They move eastwards across the sub-Himalayan belt up to Arunachal Pradesh.
•They cause light rain in the Indus-Ganga plains and snowfall in the Himalayan belt.
•After the passage of the disturbance, widespread fog and cold waves lowering the minimum temperature by 5° to
10°C below normal are experienced.
•Fog lowers visibility and causes great inconvenience for transportation.

Tropical Cyclones in Winter Season

•This is the season of least tropical cyclone activity.

•The frequency of tropical cyclones decreases with the advancement of the season.
•This is due to low sea surface temperature and exit of ITCZ farthest south.
The storms which are born in the Bay of Bengal strike Tamil Nadu and bring heavy rainfall.
•Some of them cross the southern peninsula over to the Arabian Sea.
•Some storms originate in the Arabian Sea and move towards either north or west.
 Precipitation in Winter Season
 The retreating winter monsoons pick up some moisture while crossing the Bay of
Bengal and cause winter rainfall in Tamil Nadu, south Andhra Pradesh, south-
east Karnataka and south-east Kerala (Usually in the first weeks of November).

 The highest seasonal rainfall of about 75 cm between October and December.

 Most of it occurs along the south-eastern coast of Tamil Nadu and adjoining parts of
Andhra Pradesh. Thereafter, it gradually decreases.
 The western disturbances also cause a little rainfall in north-west India.
 The amount of rainfall gradually decreases from the north and north-west to east (it is
opposite in rainy season).
 The northeastern part of India also gets rainfall during the winter months.
Q5. Why peninsular region does not have a well defined cold season?
Ans. The peninsular region does not have a well defined cold season because there is hardly any
noticeable seasonal change in temperature pattern during winters due to the moderating influence
of the sea.
 The Hot Weather Season (Summer)
 March to June.
 High temperature and low humidity are the chief characteristics.
 Sometimes referred to as pre-monsoon period.
 Temperature in Summer Season
 High sun’s insolation due to apparent movement of sun between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer.
 The southern parts of the country are distinctly warmer in March and April whereas in June, north India has higher
temperatures.
 In March, the highest temperatures occur in the southern parts (40-45°C).
 In April the highest temperature of about 45°C is recorded in the northern parts of Madhya Pradesh.
 In May the highest temperature shifts to Rajasthan where temperatures as high as 48°C may be recorded.
 In June the maximum temperature is in Punjab and Haryana.
 The highest temperatures recorded are 50.5°C at Alwar on 10th May, 1956 and 50.6°C at Ganganagar on 14th June, 1935.
 The highest temperatures are recorded just before the onset of the southwest monsoons (late May).
 The diurnal range of temperature is also very high. It may be as high as 18°C in some parts.
 The maximum summer temperatures are comparatively lower in the costal and southern peninsular regions due to moderating
effect of the sea.
 The temperatures along the west coast are comparatively lower than those prevailing on the east coast due to the prevailing
westerly winds.
 There is large contrast between land and sea temperatures.
 Northern and central parts of India experience heat waves in this season.
[A heat wave is an abnormally high temperature experienced by a regions. Temperature increase of the order of 6° to 7°C
above normal is termed as ‘moderate’ and 8°C and more as ‘severe’ heat wave]

Most of the heat waves develop over Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana (location far away from the sea). From here they
spread over Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
The strong north westerly winds (caused due to strong divergence in north-west India) with a long land journey over hot
regions check the onward march of the sea breeze over eastern coastal belt and create heat wave conditions over Odisha
and Andhra Pradesh.
The heat waves strike by the end of April and their maximum occurrence is in May. They last till the onset of southwest
monsoon.
The normal duration of heat waves is 4 to 5 days. However, heat waves are rare over the peninsula south of 13°N latitude
due to maritime conditions prevailing there.
 Pressure in Summer Season
•The atmospheric pressure is low all over the country due to high temperature.
•But strong dynamically induced divergence over north-west India prevents the onset of south-west monsoons.
Winds in Summer Season
There is a marked change in the direction and speed of the winds from winter.
The winds are by and large light and variable.

Loo
Loo winds originate over Iranian, Baloch and Thar deserts.
In May and June, high temperature in northwest India builds steep pressure gradient.
Hot, dust laden and strong wind known as loo blows.
Loo normally starts blowing by 9.00 A.M., increases gradually and reaches maximum intensity in the afternoon.
It blows with an average speed of 30-40 km per hour and persists for days.

Andhis
The strong dust storms resulting from the convective phenomena are locally known as andhis (blinding storms). They
move like a solid wall of dust and sand.
The wind velocity often reaches 50-60 kmph and the visibility is reduced to a few metres.
Such dust storms are common in Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu region, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya
Pradesh.
They are short lived. The squall and showers which follow these storms bring down the temperature sharply temporarily.
•In the south the thunderstorms occur in Kerala (Mango Showers) and adjoining parts of Karnataka (Blossom
Showers) and Tamil Nadu, particularly during evenings and nights.

Western Disturbances in Summer Season

Their frequency and intensity gradually decrease with advancement of summer.
Approximately 4, 3 and 2 western disturbances visit north-west India in March, April and May respectively.
They cause snowfall in higher reaches of the Himalayas.

Tropical Cyclones in Summer Season

Tropical cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea.
A few cyclones are formed in the Bay of Bengal in the month of March but they do not affect the mainland of India.
Their frequency rises steeply in April and the number of cyclones originating in May is more than double than those
originating in April.
About three-fourths of the tropical cyclones are born in the Bay of Bengal and the rest originate in the Arabian Sea.
Very few hit Indian coast while some dissipate over the sea itself.
The whole of the east coast of India, the coastal areas of Bangladesh and Arakan Coast of Myanmar are liable to be hit by
tropical storms in May.
Many of them are quite severe and cause heavy damage to life and property.
In the Arabian Sea, major storms are formed in May between 7° and 12° N latitudes.
Most of them move away from the Indian coast in a north-westerly direction and dissipate in the sea.
Few originate close to the Indian coast. They move towards the north-east and hit somewhere along the west coast of India.
 Precipitation in Summer Season

•This season is not totally rainless (only one per cent of the annual rainfall).
•In the northeastern parts of the country, dust storms bring little rainfall.
•The precipitation in Kashmir is mainly in the form of snow caused by western disturbances.
•The norwesters bring some rainfall in Assam, West Bengal and Odisha. The intensity of rainfall is high.
•The rainfall brought by the norwesters is known as the spring storm showers.
•This small amount of rainfall is very useful for the cultivation of tea, jute and rice and is known as tea
showers in Assam.
•Coastal areas of Kerala and Karnataka receive rainfall from thunderstorms.
•Such showers are called mango showers in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh because they are very beneficial
to mango crop.
•In Karnataka they are called cherry blossoms due to their effect on the coffee plantations.
 The Advancing Monsoon(Rainy season)
South-east trade winds originate over the warm subtropical areas of the southern oceans.
They cross the equator and blow in a southwesterly direction entering the Indian peninsula
as the southwest monsoon.

A phenomenon associated with the monsoon is its tendency to have ‘breaks’ in rainfall.
These breaks in monsoon are related to the movement of the monsoon trough. The trough
and its axis keep on moving northward or southward and determine the spatial distribution
of rainfall.

The frequency and intensity of tropical depressions also determine the amount and duration
of monsoon rains. The monsoon is known for its uncertainties. The alternation of dry and
wet spells varies in intensity, frequency and duration.
 Monsoon Trough
 Monsoon Trough
The one of the factor which affects monsoon activities is a Monsoon Trough.
What is a trough? A trough is a belt of low pressure extending to large area. This trough seen during monsoon
period, hence known as Monsoon trough.
 Features of Monsoon Trough:
This trough is located in east west direction from Northwest Rajasthan till the Bay of Bengal.
The height of the trough extends upto 5.8 kms upward in the atmosphere and It tilts Southward with height due
to temperature difference of 2 deg C with height.
1) Normal Position:
1) Normal Position: When we say that the trough is in
normal position, that means it passes through Ganganagar,
Allahabad, Calcutta and Head Bay. This gives good rain to
Central India. As a effect of low formation and it’s passage
along the trough, the strong wind currents form over the west
coast. These currents are blocked by Sahyadri
mountains(western
ghats,Guj.,Maharastra,Goa,Karnataka,Kerala,and TN)
resulting in formation of offshore trough. Hence due to this
offshore trough west of coast of India receives good rain (as
shown in red shaded box).
2) South of the Normal Position:
2) South of the Normal Position:
When the trough shifts to the south of it’s normal
position, than the monsoon conditions are active
giving excessive rainfall in central India and over
the west coast of India due to offshore trough. This
position is best for monsoon condition giving rain
to all over Peninsular India.
3) North of the Normal Position:
3) North of the Normal Position : When the trough shifts to
north of normal position it means that it shift to foothills of
Himalayas giving good rain to Uttarakhand, Himachal
Pradesh, Jammu and to all Northeast states of India. This
condition is known as “Break Monsoon” where rainfall
activity over rest of India ceases.
Retreating Monsoon(Post Monsoon)
 The months of October-November form a period of transition from hot rainy season to
dry winter conditions.
 The retreat of the monsoon is marked by clear skies and a rise in temperature. While
day temperatures are high, nights are cool and pleasant.
 Owing to the conditions of high temperature and humidity, the weather becomes
rather oppressive during the day. This is commonly known as ‘October heat’.
 In the second half of October, the mercury begins to fall rapidly in northern India.
 Mawsynram
 Mawsynram is a town in the East Khasi Hills district of Meghalaya state in Northeastern India, 69
kilometres from Shillong, the state capital.
 Mawsynram receives the highest rainfall in India. It is reportedly the wettest place on Earth, with an
average annual rainfall of 11,872 millimetres (467.4 in).
 According to the Guinness Book of World Records, Mawsynram received 26,000 millimetres (1,000 in)
of rainfall in 1985.
 Mawsynram received 745.2 mm of rainfall on 19 August 2015, probably the highest rainfall received by
the town in recent times.
 On 17 June 2022, Mawsynram set a new record by receiving 1003.6 mm in a span of 24 hours which
has now become its highest single day record for the month of June and for its all time single day record
beating its former record of 944.7 mm on 7 June 1966.
Mawsynram : Stalagmite and Stalactite Caves
Stalactite
It is an icicle-shaped formation that hangs from the ceiling of a cave and is produced by the precipitation
of minerals from water dripping through the cave ceiling. Most stalactites have pointed tips.

Stalagmite
It is an upward-growing mound of mineral deposits that have precipitated from water dripping onto the
floor of a cave. Most stalagmites have rounded or flattened tips.
The dominant mineral in such deposits is calcite (calcium carbonate), and the largest displays are formed
in caves of limestone and dolomite. Other minerals that may be deposited include other carbonates, opal,
chalcedony, limonite, and some sulfides.
 Distribution of Rainfall
 Partsof the western coast and northeastern India receive over
about 400 cm of rainfall annually.
 Rainfall is less than 60 cm in western Rajasthan and adjoining
parts of Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab.
 Rainfallis low in the interior of the Deccan plateau and east of
the Sahyadris.
 Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan region.
 The annual rainfall is highly variable from year to year.
Monsoon as a Unifying Bond

The unifying influence of the monsoon on the India subcontinent is quite noticeable. The
seasonal alteration of the wind systems and the associated weather conditions provide a
rhythmic cycle of seasons.

The uncertainties of rain and uneven distribution are very much typical of the monsoons.

Year after year, the people of India, from north to south and from east to west, eagerly await
the arrival of the monsoon.

These monsoon winds bind the whole country by providing water to set agricultural activities
in motion.