Chapter 2:

Mathematical
Language and
Symbols
 Topic Outline
I. Characteristics of Mathematical Language

II. Expression versus Sentences

III. Conventions in the Mathematical Language

IV. Four Basic Concepts

V. Elementary Logic

VI. Formality

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Conventions in the Mathematical Language
Mathematics is a spoken and written natural languages for
expressing mathematical language.

Mathematical language is an efficient and powerful tool for

mathematical expression, exploration, reconstruction after
exploration, and communication.

It is precise and concise.

It is has a poor understanding of the language.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Conventions in the Mathematical Language
Mathematics languages:
Digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9;
Mathematical symbols

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Mathematical Language

Mathematical language is the system used to communicate

mathematical ideas.

It consists of some natural language using technical terms

(mathematical terms) and grammatical conventions that are
uncommon to mathematical discourse, supplemented by a
highly specialized symbolic notation for mathematical
formulas.

Mathematical notation used for formulas has its own grammar

and shared by mathematicians anywhere in the globe.

Mathematical language is being precise, concise, and powerful.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Expression versus Sentences
An expression (or mathematical expression) is a finite
combination of symbols that is well-defined according to rules
that depend on the context.

Symbols can designate numbers, variables, operations,

functions, brackets, punctuations, and groupings to help
determine order of operations, and other aspects of
mathematical syntax.

Expression – correct arrangement of mathematical symbols to

represent the object of interest, does not contain a complete
thought, and cannot be determined if it is true or false.

Some types of expressions are numbers, sets, and functions.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Expression versus Sentences

Sentence (or mathematical sentence) – a statement about two

expressions, either using numbers, variables, or a combination
of both.

Uses symbols or words like equals, greater than, or less than.

It is a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols that states

a complete thought and can be determined whether it’s true,
false, sometimes true/sometimes false.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Conventions in the Mathematical Language

Mathematical Convention is a fact, name, notation, or usage

which is generally agreed upon by mathematicians.

PEMDAS (Parenthesis, Exponent, Multiplication, Division,

Addition and Subtraction.)

All mathematical names and symbols are conventional.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Conventions in the Mathematical Language
Different and specific meaning within mathematics—
group ring field term factor,

Special terms—
tensor fractal function

Mathematical Taxonomy —
Axiom conjecture theorems lemma corollaries

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Conventions in the Mathematical Language
Formulas are written predominantly left to right, even when
the writing system of the substrate language is right-to-left.

Latin alphabet is commonly used for simple variables and

parameters.

Mathematical expressions
= (equal) < (less-than) > (greater-than)
+ (addition) – (subtraction)  (multiplication)
 (division)  (element)  (for all)
 (there exists)  (infinity)  (implies)
 (if and only if)  (approximately) (therefore)

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Four Basic Concepts

A. Language of Sets
B. Language of Functions
C. Language of Relations
D. Language of Binary Operations

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Language of Sets

Set theory is the branch of mathematics that studies sets or the

mathematical science of the infinite.

George Cantor (1845-1918) is a German

Mathematician

He is considered as the founder of set

theory as a mathematical discipline.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Sets and Elements
A set is a well-defined collection of objects.

The objects are called the elements or members of the set.

 element of a set

 not an element of a set.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Some Examples of Sets

A = {xx is a positive integer less than 10}

B = {xx is a real number and x2 – 1 = 0}

C = {xxis a letter in the word dirt}

D = {xx is an integer, 1  x  8}

E = {xx is a set of vowel letters}

Set E equals the set of all x such that x is a set of vowel

letters” or E = {a, e, i, o, u}

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Indicate whether the ff. defined a Set

a. The list of course offerings of Centro Escolar University.

Answer: Set

b. The elected district councilors of Manila City.

Answer: Set

c. The collection of intelligent monkeys in Manila Zoo.

Answer: Not a set

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 List the Elements of the Sets

a. A = {xx is a letter in the word mathematics.}

Answer: A = {m, a, t, h, e, i, c, s.}

b. B = {xx is a positive integer, 3  x  8.}

Answer: B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

c. C = {xx = 2n + 3, n is a positive integer.}

Answer: C = {5, 7, 9, 11, 13, …}

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Methods of Writing Sets

Roster Method. The elements of the set are enumerated and

separated by a comma it is also called tabulation method.

Rule Method. A descriptive phrase is used to describe the

elements or members of the set it is also called set builder
notation, symbol it is written as {x P(x)}.

Example:
E = {a, e, i, o, u} Roster method
E = {xx is a collection of vowel letters} Rule method

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Write the ff. Sets in Roster Form
a. A= {xx is the letter of the word discrete}
Answer: A = {d, i, s, c, r, e, t}

b. B = {x3  x  8, x  Z}
Answer: B = {4, 5, 6, 7}

c. C = {xx is the set of zodiac signs}

Answer: C = {Aries, Cancer, Capricorn, Sagittarius, Libra,
Leo, …}

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Write the ff. Sets using Rule Method
a. D = {Narra, Mohagany, Molave, …}
Answer: D = {xx is the set of non-bearing trees.}

b. E = {DOJ, DOH, DOST, DSWD, DENR, CHED, DepEd,…}

Answer: E = {xx is the set of government agencies.}

c. F = {Botany, Biology, Chemistry, Physics, …}

Answer: F = {xx is the set of science subjects.}

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Some Terms on Sets

 Finite and Infinite Sets.

 Unit Set

 Empty Set

 Universal Set

 Cardinality

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Finite Set

Finite set is a set whose elements are limited or countable, and

the last element can be identified.

Example:
a. A = {xx is a positive integer less than 10}

b. C = {d, i, r, t}

c. E = {a, e, i, o, u}

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Infinite Set

Infinite set is a set whose elements are unlimited or

uncountable, and the last element cannot be specified.

Example:
a. F = {…, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2,…}

b. G = {xx is a set of whole numbers}

c. H = {xx is a set of molecules on earth}

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Unit Set
A unit set is a set with only one element it is also called
singleton.

Example:
a. I = {xx is a whole number greater than 1 but less than 3}

b. J = {w}

c. K = {rat}

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Empty Set

An empty set is a unique set with no elements (or null set), it is

denoted by the symbol  or { }.

Example:
a. L = {xx is an integer less than 2 but greater than 1}

b. M = {xx is a number of panda bear in Manila Zoo}

c. N = {xx is the set of positive integers less than zero}

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Universal Set

Universal set is the all sets under investigation in any

application of set theory are assumed to be contained in some
large fixed set, denoted by the symbol U.

Example:
a. U = {xx is a positive integer, x2 = 4}

b. U = {1, 2, 3,…,100}

c. U = {xx is an animal in Manila Zoo}

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Cardinality

The cardinal number of a set is the number of elements or

members in the set, the cardinality of set A is denoted by n(A)

Example: Determine its cardinality of the ff. sets Answer

a. E = {a, e, i, o, u}, n(E) = 5

b. A = {xx is a positive integer less than 10} n(A) = 9

c. C = {d, i, r, t} A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} n(C) = 4

Theorem 1.1: Uniqueness of the Empty Set: There is only one set
with no elements.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Venn Diagram
Venn Diagram is a pictorial presentation of relation and operations on
set.
Also known set diagrams, it show all hypothetically possible logical
relations between finite collections of sets.

Constructed with a collection of simple closed

curves drawn in the plane or normally
comprise of overlapping circles.
The interior of the circle symbolically
represents the elements (or members) of the
set, while the exterior represents elements
which are not members of the set.

Introduced by John Venn in his paper "On the Diagrammatic and

Mechanical Representation of Propositions and Reasoning’s"
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
 Kinds of Sets

 Subset

 Proper Subset

 Equal Set

 Power Set

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Subset

If A and B are sets, A is called subset of B, if and only if, every

element of A is also an element of B.

Symbolically: A  B  x, x  A  x  B.

Example: Suppose
A = {c, d, e}
B = {a, b, c, d, e}

U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}

Then A  B, since all elements of A is in B.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Proper Subset
Let A and B be sets. A is a proper subset of B, if and only if,
every element of A is in B but there is at least one element of B
that is not in A.
The symbol  denotes that it is not a proper subset.

Symbolically: A  B  x, x  A  x  B.

Example: Suppose
A = {c, d, e}
B = {a, b, c, d, e}
C = {e, a, c, b, d}
U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}

Then A  B, since all elements of A is in B.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
 Equal Sets

Given set A and B, A equals B, written, if and only if, every

element of A is in B and every element of B is in A.

Symbolically: A = B  A  B  B  A.

Example:
Suppose A = {a, b, c, d, e},
B = {a, b, d, e, c}

U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}

Then then A  B and B  A, thus A = B.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Power Set

Given a set S from universe U, the power set of S denoted by

(S), is the collection (or sets) of all subsets of S.

Example: Determine the power set of (a) A = {e, f},

(b) = B = {1, 2, 3}.

(a) A = {e, f} (A) = {{e}, {f}, {e, f}, }

(b) B = {1, 2, 3} (B) = {{1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3},
{1, 2, 3}, }.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Theorem

Theorem 1.2: A Set with No Elements is a Subset of Every Set: If

 is a set with no elements and A is any set, then
  A.

Theorem 1.3: For all sets A and B, if A  B then (A)  (B).

Theorem 1.4: Power Sets: For all integers n, if a set S has n

elements then (S) has 2n elements.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Operations on Sets

 Union

 Intersection

 Complement

 Difference

 Symmetric Difference

 Disjoint Sets

 Ordered Pairs

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Union

The union of A and B, denoted AB, is the set of all elements x

in U such that x is in A or x is in B.

Symbolically: AB = {xx  A  x  B}.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Intersection

The intersection of A and B, denoted AB, is the set of all

elements x in U such that x is in A and x is in B.

Symbolically: AB = {xx  A  x  B}.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Complement

The complement of A (or absolute complement of A), denoted

A’, is the set of all elements x in U such that x is not in A.

Symbolically: A’ = {x  U  x  A}.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Difference

The difference of A and B (or relative complement of B with

respect to A), denoted A  B, is the set of all elements x in U
such that x is in A and x is not in B.

Symbolically: A  B = {xx  A  x  B} = AB’.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Symmetric Difference

If set A and B are two sets, their symmetric difference as the set
consisting of all elements that belong to A or to B, but not to
both A and B.

Symbolically: A  B = {xx  (AB)  x(AB)}

= (AB)(AB)’ or (AB)  (AB).

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Example

Suppose
A = {a, b, c} B = {c, d, e} U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}

Find the following

a. AB

b. AB
c. A’
d. A  B
e. A  B

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Solution

a. AB = {a, b, c, d, e}

b. AB = {c}

c. A’ = {d, e, f, g}

d. A  B = {a, b}

e. A  B = {a, b, d, e}

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Disjoint Sets

Two set are called disjoint (or non-intersecting) if and only if,
they have no elements in common.

Symbolically: A and B are disjoint  AB = .

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

Order Pairs
In the ordered pair (a, b), a is called the first component and b is
called the second component. In general, (a, b)  (b, a).

Example: Determine whether each statement is true or false.

a. (2, 5) = (9 – 7, 2 + 3) Since
True2 = 9 – 7 and 2 + 3 = 5, the ordered pair
is equal.

b. {2, 5}  {5, 2} Since

Falsethese are sets and not ordered pairs,
the order in which the elements are listed is
not important.
c. (2, 5)  (5, 2) True ordered pairs are not equal since they
These
do not satisfy the requirements for equality
of ordered pairs.
Cartesian Product

The Cartesian product of sets A and B, written AxB, is

AxB = {(a, b)  a  A and b  B}

Example: Let A = {2, 3, 5} and B = {7, 8}. Find each set.

a. AxB = {(2, 7), (2, 8), (3, 7), (3, 8), (5, 7), (5, 8)}

b. BxA = {(7, 2), (7, 3), (7, 5), (8, 2), (8, 3), (8, 5)}

c. AxA = {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 5), (5, 2), (5, 3),
(5, 5)}
 Language of Functions and Relations

A relation is a set of ordered pairs.

If x and y are elements of these sets and if a relation exists

between x and y, then we say that x corresponds to y or that y
depends on x and is represented as the ordered pair of (x, y).

A relation from set A to set B is defined to be any subset of AB.

If R is a relation from A to B and (a, b)  R, then we say that “a

is related to b” and it is denoted as a R b.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Language of Functions and Relations

Let A = {a, b, c, d} be the set of car brands, and

B = {s, t, u, v} be the set of countries of the car manufacturer.

Then AB gives all possible pairings of the elements of A and B,

let the relation R from A to B be given by

R = {(a, s), (a, t), (a, u), (a, v), (b, s), (b, t), (b, u), (b, v), (c, s),
(c, t), (c, u), (b, v), (d, s), (d, t), (d, u), (d, v)}.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Language of Functions and Relations
Let R be a relation from set A to the set B.

domain of R is the set dom R

dom R = {a  A (a, b)  R for some b  B}.

image (or range) of R

im R = {b  B (a, b)  R for some a  A}.

Example: A = {4, 7},

Then AA = {(4, 4), (4, 7), (7, 4),(7, 7)}.

Let  on A be the description of x  y  x + y is even.

Then (4, 4)  , and (7, 7)  .

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Language of Functions and Relations

Function is a special kind of relation helps visualize

relationships in terms of graphs and make it easier to interpret
different behavior of variables..

Applications of Functions:
financial applications economics medicine
Engineering sciences natural disasters
calculating pH levels measuring decibels
designing machineries

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Language of Binary Operations
A function is a relation in which, for
each value of the first component of
the ordered pairs, there is exactly one
value of the second component.

The set X is called the domain of the

function.

For each element of x in X, the corresponding element y in Y is

called the value of the function at x, or the image of x.

Range – set of all images of the elements of the domain is

called the of the function. A function can map from one set to
another.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Language of Binary Operations
Determine whether each of the following relations is a function.

A = {(1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 5), (4, 6)}

B = {(–2, 7), (–1, 3), (0, 1), (1, 5), (2, 5)}
C = {(3, 0), (3, 2), (7, 4), (9, 1)}

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Language of Binary Operations

Algebraic structures focuses on investigating sets associated by

single operations that satisfy certain reasonable axioms.

An operation on a set generalized structures as the integers

together with the single operation of addition, or invertible 22
matrices together with the single operation of matrix
multiplication.

The algebraic structures known as group.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Binary Operations

Let G be a set. A binary operation on G is a function that assigns

each ordered pair of element of G.

Symbolically, a  b = G, for all a, b, c  G.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Group

A group is a set of elements, with one operation, that satisfies

the following properties:
(i) the set is closed with respect to the operation,
(ii) the operation satisfies the associative property,
(iii)there is an identity element, and
(iv) each element has an inverse.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Group

A group is an ordered pair (G, ) where G is a set and  is a

binary operation on G satisfying the four properties.
Closure property. If any two elements are combined using
the operation, the result must be an element of the
set. a  b = c  G, for all a, b, c  G.
Associative property. (a  b)  c = a  (b  c), for all a, b,
c  G.
Identity property. There exists an element e in G, such that
for all a  G, a  e = e  a.
Inverse property. For each a  G there is an element a–1 of
G, such that a  a–1 = a–1  a = e.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Group
The set of group G contain all the elements including the
binary operation result and satisfying all the four properties
closure, associative, identity e, and inverse a–1.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Example

Determine whether the set of all non-negative integers under

addition is a group.

Solution:
Apply the four properties to test the set of all non-negative
integers under addition is a group.

Step 1: Closure property, choose any two positive integers,

8 + 4 = 12 and 5 + 10 = 15
The sum of two numbers of the set, the result is
always a number of the set.
Thus, it is closed.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Solution

Step 2: Associative property, choose three positive integers

3 + (2 + 4) = 3 + 6 = 9
(3 + 2) + 4 = 5 + 4 = 9
Thus, it also satisfies the associative property.

Step 3: Identity property, choose any positive integer

8 + 0 = 8; 9 + 0 = 9; 15 + 0 = 15
Thus, it also satisfies the identity property.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Solution

Step 4: Inverse property, choose any positive integer

4 + (–4) = 0;
10 + (–10) = 0;
23 + (–23) = 0
Note that a–1 = –a.
Thus, it also satisfies the inverse property.

Thus, the set of all non-negative integers under addition is a

group, since it satisfies the four properties.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Formal Logic

 The science or study of how to evaluate arguments &

reasoning.

 It differentiate correct reasoning from poor reasoning.

 It is important in sense that it helps us to reason correctly.

 The methods of reasoning.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Mathematical Logic

 Mathematical logic (or symbolic logic) is a branch of

mathematics with close connections to computer science.

 Mathematical study of logic and the applications of formal

logic to other areas of mathematics.

 It also study the deductive formal proofs systems and

expressive formal systems.

Four Divisions:
Set Theory Recursion Theory
Proof Theory Model Theory

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Aristotle (382-322 BC)

Aristotle is generally regarded as

the Father of Logic

The study started in the late 19th

century with the development of
axiomatic frameworks for analysis,
geometry and arithmetic.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Statement

A statement (or proposition) is a declarative sentence which

is either true or false, but not both.

The truth value of the statements is the truth and falsity of

the statement.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Example
Which of the following are statements?
1. Manila is the capital of the Philippines. Is true
A statement.

2. What day is it? It is a question

Not a statement.
3. Help me, please. It cannot be categorized as true or false.
Not a statement.

4. He is handsome. Is neither true nor false - “he” is not

specified.
Not a statement.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Ambiguous Statements

1. Mathematics is fun.

2. Calculus is more interesting than Trigonometry.

3. It was hot in Manila.

4. Street vendors are poor.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Propositional Variable

A variable which used to represent a statement.

A formal propositional written using propositional logic

notation, p, q, and r are used to represent statements.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Logical Connectives

Logical connectives are used to combine simple statements

which are referred as compound statements.

 A compound statement is a statement composed of two or

more simple statements connected by logical connectives

“or” “not” “if then”

“and” “exclusive-or.” “if and only if”

 A statement which is not compound is said to be simple

(also called atomic).

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Conjunction
The conjunction of the statement p and q is the compound
statement “p and q.”

Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “and.”

Property 1: If p is true and q is true, then p  q is true;

otherwise p  q is false. Meaning, the conjunction of
two statements is true only if each statement is true.
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Example

Determine the truth value of each of the following conjunction.

1. 2 + 6 = 9 and man is a mammal. False

False True

2. Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion and Gloria False

Macapagal Arroyo is the first female Philippine
President.
3. Ferdinand Marcos is the only three-term Philippine True
President and Joseph Estrada is the only Philippine
President who resigns.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Statement
The disjunction of the statement p, q is the compound
statement “p or q.”
Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “or.”

Property 2: If p is true or q is true or if both p and q are true,

then p  q is true; otherwise p  q is false. Meaning,
the disjunction of two statements is false only if
each statement is false.
p q pq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Example
Determine the truth value of each of the following disjunction.

1. 2 + 6 = 9 or Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion. True

False True

2. Joseph Ejercito is the only Philippine President who True

resigns or Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first female
Philippine President.

3. Ferdinand Marcos is the only three-term Philippine True

President or man is a mammal.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Negation

The negation of the statement p is denoted by p, where  is

the symbol for “not.”

Property 3: If p is true, p is false. Meaning, the truth value of

the negation of a statement is always the reverse of
the truth value of the original statement.

p p
T F
F T

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Example

The following are statements for p, find the corresponding p.

1. 3 + 5 = 8. 3 + 5  8.

2. Sofia is a girl. Sofia is a boy.

3. Achaiah is not here. Achaiah is here.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Conditional

The conditional (or implication) of the statement p and q is the

compound statement “if p then q.”

Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “if then.” p is called

hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) and q is called conclusion (or
consequent or consequence).

Property 4: The conditional statement p q pq

p  q is false only when p is true and q is T T T
false; otherwise p  q is true. Meaning T F F
p  q states that a true statement cannot F T T
imply a false statement. F F T

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Example

In the statement “If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is sour.”

The antecedent is “vinegar is sweet,” and

the consequent is “sugar is sour.”

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Example
Obtain the truth value of each of the following conditional
statements.
1. If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is sour. True
False False

2. 2 + 5 = 7 is a sufficient condition for 5 + 6 = 1. False

True False

3. 14 – 8 = 4 is a necessary condition that 6  3 = 2. True

False True

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Biconditional
The biconditional of the statement p and q is the compound
statement “p if and only if q.”

Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “if and only if.”

Property 5: If p and q are true or both false, then p  q is true;

if p and q have opposite truth values, then p  q is
false.

p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Example
Determine the truth values of each of the following
biconditional statements.

1. 2 + 8 = 10 if and only if 6 – 3 = 3. True

True True

2. Manila is the capital of the Philippines is equivalent False

to fish live in moon.

3. 8 – 2 = 5 is a necessary and sufficient for 4 + 2 = 7. True

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Exclusive-Or
The exclusive-or of the statement p and q is the compound
statement “p exclusive or q.”

Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “exclusive or.”

Property 6: If p and q are true or both false, then p  q is false;

if p and q have opposite truth values, then p  q is
true.
p q pq
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Example
“Sofia will take her lunch in Batangas or she will have it in
Singapore.”

Case 1: Sofia cannot have her lunch in Batangas and at False

the same time in do it in Singapore,”

Case 2: If Sofia will have her lunch in Batangas or in True

Singapore, meaning she can only have it in one
location given a single schedule.

Case 3: If she ought to decide to have her lunch False

elsewhere (neither in Batangas nor in Singapore).

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Predicate

A predicate (or open statements) is a statement whose truth

depends on the value of one or more variables.

Predicates become propositions once every variable is bound

by assigning a universe of discourse.

Most of the propositions are define in terms of predicates

Example:
“x is an even number” is a predicate whose truth depends
on the value of x.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Predicate

A predicate can also be denoted by a function-like notation.

Example:

P(x) = “x is an even number.” Now P(2) is true, and P(3)

is false.

If P is a predicate, then P(x) is either true or false, depending

on the value of x.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Propositional Function

A propositional function is a sentence P(x); it becomes a

statement only when variable x is given particular value.

Propositional functions are denoted as P(x), Q(x),R(x), and so

on.

The independent variable of propositional function must have

a universe of discourse, which is a set from which the variable
can take values.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Propositional Function
Example:
“If x is an odd number, then x is not a multiple of 2.”

The given sentence has the logical form P(x)  Q(x) and its
truth value can be determine for a specific value of x.

Example: Existential Quantifiers

There exists an x such that x is odd number and 2x is even number.

For all x, if x is a positive integer, then 2x + 1 is an odd

number.
Universal Quantifiers
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
 Universe of Discourse

The universe of discourse for the variable x is the set of

positive real numbers for the proposition
“There exists an x such that x is odd number and 2x is even
number.”

Binding variable is used on the variable x, we can say that the

occurrence of this variable is bound.

A variable is said to be free, if an occurrence of a variable is

not bound.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Universe of Discourse

To convert a propositional function into a proposition, all

variables in a proposition must be bound or a particular value
must be designated to them.

This is done by applying combination of quantifiers

(universal, existential) and value assignments.

The scope of a quantifier is the part of an assertion in which

variables are bound by the quantifier.

A variable is free if it is outside the scope of all quantifiers.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Existential Quantifiers

The statement “there exists an x such that P(x),” is

symbolized by x P(x).

The symbol  is called the existential quantifier

The statement “x P(x)”is true if there is at least one value of x

for which P(x) is true.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Universal Quantifiers

The statement “for all x, P(x),” is symbolized by x P(x).

The symbol  is called the universal quantifier.

The statement “x P(x)”is true if only if P(x) is true for every
value of x.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Topic Outline

Quantifier Symbol Translation

Existential  There exists
There is some
For some
For which
For at least one
Such that
Satisfying

Universal  For all

For each
For every
For any
Given any

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Truth Values of Quantifiers
If the universe of discourse for P is P{p1, p2, …, pn}, then
x P(x)  P(p1)  P(p2) … P(pn) and
x P(x)  P(p1)  P(p2) … P(pn).
Statement Is True when Is False when
x P(x) P(x) is true for There is at least
every x. one x for which
P(x) is false.

x P(x) There is at least P(x) is false for

one x for which every x.
P(x) is true.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Quantified Statements and their Negation

Statement Negation
All A are B. Some A are not B.
No A are B. Some A are B.
Some A are not B. All A are B.
Some A are B. No A are B.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

For the things of this world cannot be
made known without a knowledge of
mathematics.
– Roger Bacon

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston