Post-harvest Handling
and Seed Technology
Vivian D. Estrada
Instructor I
Week 1 • Define post-harvest technology
• Determine the importance and objectives
• Explain the causes of post-harvest food losses and the
prevention measures.
• Carryout post-harvest food loss assessment; and
• Determine the pre-harvest factors affecting the post-harvest
life and quality aspects.
Week 2 • Classify fruits and vegetable based on their morpho-
anatomical structures and length of postharvest life.
• Discuss the morpho-anatomical structures of fruits and
vegetables on the length of their postharvest life.
• Determine the chemical bases for handling common fruits
and vegetables.
• Explain important physiological processes that affect
postharvest life of fruits and vegetables.
• Determine the factors affecting the physiological processes
of fruits and vegetable after harvest
Why post-harvest
losses happen?
What are the results of poor post-
harvest handling?
Why do we need to
learn post-harvest
technology?
Classification of Crop Produce
Fruits Vegetable
botanically, are mature all others parts of plant
ovaries and seed-bearing which are edible
parts of plants.
Harvested vegetable fruits and vegetable have the following characteristics:
1. High moisture content
2. 2. Highly perishable
MORPHO-ANATOMICAL BASIS FOR
PERISHABILITY OF FRUITS AND
VEGETABLES
1. Plant part or organ utilized
2. Nature of the Fruit wall
3. Surface area to volume ratio
4. Nature of the cuticle
5. Number of Stomata
6. Amount of Hairs and/or Spines
7. Presence of Lenticels
8. Presence of laticifers
1. Plant part or organ utilized
Leaves and flowers wilt
Flowers open
Fruit ripens
Shoot tips elongate
Tubers sprout
2. Nature of the Fruit wall
Thin fruit wall are most susceptible to damage.
Leathery peel are less susceptible
Thick and hard fruit wall can withstand damage.
3. Surface area to volume ratio
The greater the surface area to volume ratio, the
faster the respiration, transpiration and penetration of
microorganisms and chemicals
4. Nature of the Cuticle
The thicker and more complex
cuticle, the greater the protective
capacity for:
Moisture loss
Penetration of
microorganisms
Mechanical damage
Temperature change
Escape of flavor components
5. Number of Stomata
More stomata, the faster will be the deterioration
of the commodity
Pechay has 13,000 stomates per cm3
Immature fruits have more stomata
6. Amount of Hairs and/or
Spines
Emergences – visible hairs or
spines
Trichomes – hairs that are not
visible to the naked eye
Spintern – special name for the
hairs of rambutan
The more trichomes, the faster
the deterioration.
7. Presence of Lenticels
Lenticels – circular protruding air-filled cells
with a central opening
8. Presence of Laticifers
Laticifers – sap or latex producing ducts
Postharvest Physiology
Respiration
Transpiration
Ethylene Production
Respiration
an oxidation process
(C6H12O6 + O2 -- CO2 + H2O + energy)
necessary for cells to maintain structure and for ripening processes such
as color and flavor development.
Low respiration rates (about 1.52 mg CO2/kg)
ex. Storage organs
Intermediate respiration rates (about 70 mg CO2/kg)
Ex. Fruits at physiological maturity
High respiration rates (about 570.6 mg CO2/kg)
ex. Organs at immature stage
Transpiration
Horticultural products can be regarded as “water inside
pleasing packages” or water with a mechanical structure”
Consequences of water loss:
o Loss in weight of all commodities
o Softening of fruits and vegetables
o Wilting of leaves and flowers
o Shriveling of fruits and root crops
o Stem end rind breakdown of oranges
o Discoloration of rambutan and lanzones
Ethylene Production
Ethylene (C2H2) is a hormone in gas form which causes
the following in harvested crops:
Hasten ripening
Promotes sprouting of root, tuber and bulb crops
Induce abscission of leave, petals or flower
Conditions which will slow down the rate
of respiration and transpiration in plants
Low Temperature
low oxygen in the immediate
environment
High relative humidity
CHEMICAL BASIS OF HANDLING
THE HARVESTED COMMODITIES
1. Carbohydrate Content
2. Presence of Protopectins
3. Pigment
4. Fats and Acids
1. Carbohydrate Content
More carbohydrates, last longer
Sugar to starch = loss of sweetness
Starch to sugar = undesirable for
processing (potatoes)
Sugar causes browning during cooking
2. Presence of Protopectins
Deposited in the cell wall and middle lamella, act as
cementing materials.
Protopectin, pectin, pectinic acids, pectic acids
High in pectin = guava, pineapples and oranges
Low in pectin = cherries and strawberries
Used for making jam and jellies.
3. Pigments
Responsible for specific color of some
commodities
4. Fats and Acids
Saturated fats – harmful and increases
cholesterol level
Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated –
not harmful
DURABLES vs PERISHABLES
Procedures in Postharvest Handling of
Fruits and Vegetable
Maturity
Maturity is considered as “that stage at
which a commodity has reach a
sufficient stage of development that
after harvesting and postharvest
handling, its quality will be at least the
minimum acceptable to the ultimate
consumer”
Maturity indices = Harvest Indices
Sensory and nutritional quality
Used -fresh and market or processed
Adequate shelf-life
Facilitate marketing standards
Physiological Maturity – the stage of development
when a plant part will continue development even if
detached; mature fruits
Horticultural maturity – the stage of development
when a plant part possesses the necessary
characteristics for use by consumers.
Maturity Indices of Common Fruits and
Vegetables
used to determine maturity, to predict harvest date and
to assess quality of crop
Practical uses of Maturity Indices
1. Export markets often include a guide for minimum and
maximum maturity that is acceptable for a given commodity.
2. Marketing strategies to obtain premium prices for
commodities “Supply and Demand” delaying or expediting
harvesting and shipping of particular crop at the beginning or
end of the season requires a measure of maturity if quality is to
be maintained.
3.Efficient used of labor. A measure of maturity is important for
organizing start and end dates for harvesting to ensure labor
and equipment availability and reduce harvesting cost.
Types of maturity indices
1. Age-related
2. Physical properties
3. Morphological changes
4. Chemical composition
1. Age-related
a) number of days from planting to maturity
b) days from full bloom to harvest
2. Physical properties
a) External and internal color
b) Size- Size may not be a good indicator of
maturity as can be influenced by many factors but
useful for peas, beans, potatoes, celery.
c) Shape; Some crops are harvested when reaching a
certain shape. For example, banana (3/4 full, full3/4
and round full), cucumber.
d) Solidity
e) Texture
Firmness
Tenderness
3. Morphological changes
a) Development of an abscission layer- muskmelons
b) Development of a waxy layer on the epidermis-plums,
grapes, honey dew melons
c) Development of netting on the surface- muskmelons
d) Internal structure – formation of gel-like material
surrounding the seeds of tomatoes e) Prior to tip opening –
asparagus
4. Chemical composition
Starch – apple, pears
Soluble solids/sugars- apples pears, stone fruits, grapes
Acids; sugar/acid ration- citrus, pomegranates, kiwifruit
Juice content- citrus fruits
Percent dry weight- avocado
Astringency- persimmon, date-low levels desirable
Ethylene production-apple, pears (particularly those destined for long
term storage)
Instruments to measure maturity
Refractometer - measurement of the mass ratio of dissolved
sucrose to water in liquid.
None-destructive maturity analysis
Electronic Nose- used to detect aroma volatiles in a
range of food type.
Acoustic firmness sensor – Methods taps the fruit
and then “listen” for vibrations (resonance
attenuated vibration).
Spectroscopic analysis- various different methods
based upon the interaction of atoms or molecules
with the electromagnetic spectrum
Non-Climacteric Fruits- fruits that are not
capable of continuing their ripening process once
removed from the plant.
Climacteric Fruits- fruits that can be harvested
mature and ripened off the plant.
Harvest Operation
Harvesting operation includes:
1. Identification and judging the maturity of fruits
2. Selection of mature fruits
3. Detaching or separating of the fruits from tree
4. Collection of matured fruits
Methods of Harvesting
1. Manual Harvesting - Harvesting by one’s own
hand is called manual harvesting.
2. Mechanical Harvesting - In this method,
numbers of mechanical devices are used for
harvesting the produce on commercial scale.
Maturity Indices of Common Vegetables
Broccoli/Cauliflower- based on size and florets are closed
Carrots- Size of roots
Lettuce, Head- based on size, firmness, solidity, flavor, sweetness, bitterness
Lettuce, Romaine-size and number of leaves
Onion/Garlic- based on size, drying and collapse of the neck, and drying of leaf
scales
Potatoes- death of the plant, size of tubers, starch content of tubers, specific gravity,
and periderm development.
Cucumber- based on size, external color, seeds are tender
Okra- based on size, external color, young and tender
Beans- based on size, fruits are tender
Pepper- based on size, color, firmness, seed and locules development
Tomato- External and internal color, development of locules (jelly),
firmness, development of cuticle
Week 4
Packaging Operations
A. Importance of Proper packaging the Shelf Life of Fruits and
Vegetables
B. Criteria for choosing the Proper Packaging Materials
C. Types of Packaging Materials
D. Packing House handling
E. Pre-storage treatments for fresh fruits and vegetables
Learning Outcomes
Explain the importance of proper packaging in prolonging the shelf life
of fruits and vegetables;
Enumerate the criteria for choosing the proper packaging materials;
Identify different types of packaging materials;
Explain the different practices in packing house handling; and
Explain various pre-storage treatments for fresh fruits and vegetables
Importance of Proper Packaging in Prolonging
the Shelf Life of Harvested Commodities
protects the product from mechanical injuries, tampering, and
contamination from physical, chemical, and biological sources.
Ex. Bags, crates, hampers, baskets, cartons, bulk bins etc.
Criteria in Choosing the Right Packaging
Materials
1. Recyclability/Biodegradability - waste disposal
restrictions for packaging
2. Variety - greater use of bulk packages for processors
and wholesale buyers and smaller packages for consumers.
3. Sales Appeal - High quality graphics are increasingly
being used to boost sales appeal.
4. Shelf Life - to extend shelf life and reduce waste.
Criteria in Choosing the Right Packaging
Materials
5. Container - The container must enclose the produce
in convenient must enclose the produce in convenient
units for handling and distribution.
6. Protection - The package must protect the produce
from mechanical damage and poor environmental
conditions during handling and distribution.
7. Identification - The package must identify and
provide useful information about the produce
Types of Packaging Materials
Wood
Plastic
Packing House Handling
preparation of produce for market is carried out in a packing
house, which may range from a simple, on-the-farm thatched
shed to an automated regional packaging line
Packinghouse Handling include
Packinghouse Handling include
Sorting; removes foreign matter (stones, leaves, debris)
Cleaning and washing: hand washing or on a line use only clean
running water.
Fungicide treatment: post-harvest application of fungicide is
usual on crops such as bananas, yams and citrus fruit
Quality selection and grading; manually or on a packing line.
Recommended Practices in Packing Houses
Use chlorinated water to wash produce.
Change water when dirty
Wash, rinse and sanitize packing lines surfaces at end of each day.
Store packaging materials in a clean area.
Pre-Storage Treatments
Cleaning Pre cooling
Washing Curing
Sorting Desapping
Grading Chemical treatments
Waxing Irradiation
Packing Vapor heat treatment
Cleaning
treatment given to remove adhering dust, dirt, extraneous matter,
pathogenic load etc. from the surface of a commodity.
Methods of cleaning
a. Dry methods (Dusting etc.)
b. Wet method (Washing)
Sorting and Grading
Fruits are graded on the basis of their color, size and weight and
sorted for freeness from damage/diseases.
Waxing / Coating
process of applying wax on the surface of commodity by spray, dip
or immersion, brushing, fogging or foaming.
Types of waxes : Paraffin wax, carnauba wax, bees wax etc.
Pre-cooling
It is the prompt cooling of the commodity immediately after harvest
(generally within 24 hours of harvest), to its safe storage temperature,
which aims at removal of field heat.
Rate of cooling depends on:
• Initial product temperature
• Rate of flow cooling media around the commodity
• Temperature difference between produce and cooling media
• Thermal conductivity of produce.
Chemical treatment
Various chemicals are applied to fruits and vegetables in order
to control post-harvest and pest infestations.
Methods of application of chemicals: Dipping
Curing
It is a technique where the commodity is left in the field itself in a
heap under shade for few days. It is an effective operation to reduce
water loss during storage from hardly vegetables e.g. onion, garlic,
sweet potato etc.
The essential conditions during curing are: * Heat (~30 degree
Celsius) • Good ventilation • Low relative humidity (RH)
Irradiation
Fruits are exposed to various doses of electromagnetic
radiations for small duration (few sec to few min.) of time
under highly controlled conditions
Vapor heat treatment
The treatment consists of stacking the fruit in boxes in a room
which is heated and humidified by injection of steam.
The most difficult stage to control by VHT is larval stage as the
insect goes further into the fruit and away from the surface thus
requiring high temperatures for short time
Desapping
Desapping is done by holding the mango fruits upside down
while cutting the stalk of fruits. The stalks of mango fruits are
cut very carefully to 0.5 to 1.0 cm by trained workers by using a
scissor with sharp long nose to avoid causing skin injury.
Week 5
Transport and Storage
A. Characteristics of ideal transport for fresh fruits and vegetables
B. Effect of refrigerated storage on deterioration of Fresh fruits and
Vegetables
C. Importance of Appropriate Transport in the Marketing of Produce
D. Damages incurred by fruits and vegetables during transport
Learning Outcomes
Characterize the ideal transport for fresh fruits and vegetables
Explain how refrigerated storage can reduce deterioration of fresh
fruits and vegetables;
Explain the importance of appropriate transport in the marketing of
produce; and
Discuss the fruit and vegetable damages incurred during transport
Transport and Storage of
Fruits and Vegetables
Characteristics:
Have well designed and adequately equipped compartments
Have slip resistance floors
Perfectly insulated
Have adequate and well-positioned doors for loading and unloading
Allow effective distribution of cool air
Allow monitoring and temperature control
Proper air spaces between pallets and room walls to ensure proper air
circulation.
Effect of Refrigerated Storage on
Deterioration of Fresh fruits and Vegetables
Why is temperature very critical during
storage?
Fruits and vegetables have living cells that continue
the following metabolic processes:
Importance of Appropriate Transport in
Marketing of Produce
Transportation
is a big and often most important factor in the marketing of
fresh produce. Ideally, transport would take produce from the
grower directly to the consumer. Losses directly attributed to
transport conditions can be high.
Damages Incurred by Fruits and Vegetables
during Transport
Causes of Mechanical Damage during Transport
Careless handling of packed produce during loading and
unloading
Vibration (shaking) of the vehicle, especially on bad roads
Fast driving and poor condition of the vehicle
Poor stowage, which allows packages in transit to sway or the
stow may collapse
Packages stacked too high, the movement of produce which a
package increases in relation to its height in the stack
Week 6-7
Post-harvest Control of Senescence and Related Processes
A. Definition of Modified Atmosphere and Modified Atmosphere Packaging
B. Commercial Uses of Modified Storage
C. Principles of Modified Atmosphere Storage
D. Advantages and Disadvantages of Modified Atmosphere Storage;
E. Definition of Modified Humidity Packaging
The Role of Ethylene in Post-harvest Biology
F. Ethylene as growth regulator in plants
G. The Beneficial and Detrimental effects of ethylene in Post-harvest life of fresh produce
H. Methods of controlling ethylene in Post-Harvest
I. Methods of increasing ethylene in Post-harvest Technology
Learning Outcomes
Define modified atmosphere and modified atmosphere packaging;
Explain the commercial uses of modified storage packaging;
Discuss the principles of modified atmosphere storage; and
Define modified humidity packaging
Define ethylene
Enumerate and discuss the detrimental and beneficial effects of ethylene in
post-harvest life of fresh produce
Discuss the role of ethylene in post-harvest shelf life
Name the methods of controlling and increasing ethylene on the post-
harvest life of fresh produce
Modified atmosphere
Modified atmosphere is a condition of atmosphere (normally in a
package of commodity) around the commodity that is different
from that of air (78.08% N2, 20.95% O2, and 0.03% CO2). Usually
this involves reduction of O2 and/or
elevation of CO2 concentrations.
the reduced amount of oxygen and higher carbon dioxide
in the package also reduce ethylene action thereby
delaying the ripening and senescence processes. The result
increases the product’s shelf life
Advantages and Disadvantages of Modified
Atmosphere Storage
Potential Benefits of Modified Atmosphere Storage
1. Retardation of senescence
2. Reduction of fruit sensitivity to ethylene action
3. Alleviation of certain physiological disorders
4. Directly and indirectly affect postharvest pathogens
5. Useful tool for insect control in some commodities
Potential Harmful
1. Initiation or aggravation of certain physiological disorders
2. Irregular ripening of fruits
3. Off-flavor and off odors
4. Susceptibility to decay may increase
5. Sprouting and retardation of periderm development are
stimulated in some root and tuber vegetables, such as
potatoes.
Modified Humidity Packaging
Reduction in relative humidity to an optimal amount may be
critical for the success of MAP research: CaCl2, Sorbitol,
NaCl, xylitol and KCl.
Example: The storage life of package red-type tomato fruit at
20oC was extended from 5 days using no pouch to 15-17 days
with a pouch containing NaCl.
Ethylene
A colorless gas with a faint sweetish smell that is naturally
produced ripening hormone of some fruit
Ethylene as growth regulator
Ethylene suppresses its own synthesis in vegetative tissues,
non-climacteric fruits and in immature fruit tissues.
Ethylene enhances its own synthesis in ripening climacteric
fruits.
Ethylene stimulates:
Anthocyanin synthesis in ripening fruits
Chlorophyll destruction and yellowing
Seed germination
Adventitious root formation
Respiration
Flower initiation
Abscission and senescence
Ethylene inhibits:
Auxin transport
Shoot and root elongation
Week 8
Loss Assessment and Quality Evaluation
A. Post-harvest Goals
B. History of Post-harvest Practices
C. Characteristics of perishable Commodities
D. Estimated Post-harvest Losses
E. Causes of Post-harvest Loss
F. Post-harvest Compositional Changes
G. Post-harvest Morphological Changes
H. Post-harvest Physiological Disorders
Learning Outcomes
Demonstrate Post-harvest goals
State the characteristics of perishable commodities
Identify the causes of post-harvest losses
Identify and describe post-harvest changes
The Postharvest Goals
1. Harvest the product at its optimum maturity
2. Maintain the product’s internal and external quality
throughout packing, storage and distribution
3. Deliver the fruits to consumers at the time and in a form
that they will purchase it
History of Post-harvest
Early postharvest practices are very limited
All the postharvest methods employed earlier kill the
product.
Processing made the product easier to transport and can be
stored longer period than the perishable nature of
unprocessed fruits and vegetables.
7,000 B C - Basket making was developed and became popular during
9,000 BC - Storage practices in underground pits or silos was developed in
1803, ice refrigeration was developed to extend the shelf life of commodities
1855 - mechanical refrigeration was invented.
1872 - ice refrigerated rail cars was widely used to transport perishable
commodities
1889 - Food preservation become more popular when ammonia refrigeration
was invented
1929 - Commercialization of controlled storage to preserve perishable food
products was started in England
Post-harvest Losses
monetary value of the commodity
other losses are in terms of:
1. Loss of energy and labor during packinghouse operations
2. Loss of materials such as packaging
3. Loss in terms of cost of waste disposal
4. Loss of food value such as vitamins and other nutrients
5. Loss of organoleptic quality through the loss of color,
water loss and carbohydrate changes.
Causes of Postharvest Loss
Internal Factors Environmental Factors
1. Respiration 1. Temperature
2. Physical damage
2. Compositional changes 3. Pathogens
3. Morphological changes 4. Relative humidity
4. Physiological disorders 5. Atmospheric composition
6. Light
5. General senescence 7. Gravity
8. Rodents and other animals
9. Contamination
Respiration and Shelf Life
Respiration and shelf life are inversely related
The higher the respiration rate of the commodity, the lesser
the shelf life is. Commodities with lesser or slower rate of
respiration have longer shelf life.
Temperature and Respiration
Temperature is the most important factor influencing the
postharvest life of the given commodity
Temperature dictates the speed of chemical reactions
including respiration.
Postharvest Compositional Changes
Postharvest compositional changes are:
1. Water loss which resulted to wilting and shriveling
2. Loss of nutrients
3. Loss of vitamin contents
4. Loss of antioxidants
5. Changes from starch to sugar or sugar to starch
Postharvest Morphological Changes
Characteristics Change
Color, Shape, Deterioration change etc.
Postharvest Physiological Disorders
A tissue damage or breakdown which not caused by pathogens, insects
or mechanical damage is a physiological disorder.
Low temperature may cause chilling injury, freezing injury.
High temperature may also cause physiological disorders.
Altered atmospheric gas concentration may also cause physiological
disorders.
Low or elevated carbon dioxide may alter the chlorophyll content of the
commodity.
Week 9
Part B. Science and Technology of Seed Production, Processing and
Storage, Testing and Quality Control
Reproductive Processes in Plants
A. Flowering
B. Flower Morphology
C. Physiology of Flowering
D. Photoperiodism
E. Phytochrome
F. Importance of Photoperiodism
Learning Outcomes
Define flowering
Describe the difference between short day plants and long day
plants
Describe how photoperiod affects flowering of crop plants
Discuss how phytochrome affects flowering of plants
Explain the difference between pollination and fertilization
Photoperiodic effect
Response
Plant response as conditioned by daylength
