Raw score Transformation

• transformations by showing how knowledge of the mean and

standard deviation of such distributions can help us determine the
relative standing of an individual score
Percentile
• A percentile expresses the percentage of persons in the
standardization sample who scored below a specific raw score.
an IQ of 130 corresponds to a percentile of 98, meaning that the score
is not only well above average but, more precisely, also exceeds
98 percent of the standardization sample
Standard score
• The standard score (more commonly referred to as a z-score) is a very useful
statistic because it
• (a) allows us to calculate the probability of a score occurring within our
normal distribution and
• (b) enables us to compare two scores that are from different normal
distributions.
• In statistics, the standard score is the number of standard deviations by
which the value of a raw score (i.e., an observed value or data point) is
above or below the mean value of what is being observed or measured.
• Raw scores above the mean have positive standard scores, while those
below the mean have negative standard scores.
• Standard deviation denotes magnitude and direction of deviation

• = mean __ examine raw score

• SD
T scores and Z scores
• Many psychologists and educators appreciate the psychometric
properties of standard scores but regard the decimal fractions and
positive/negative signs (e.g., z = -2.32) as unnecessary distractions.
• Test specialists have devised a number of variations on standard
scores that are collectively referred to as standardized scores.
• standardized scores are identical to standard scores.
• Both kinds of scores contain exactly the same information.
• The shape of the distribution of scores is not affected, and a plot of
the relationship between standard and standardized scores is always a
straight line.
• standardized scores are always expressed as positive whole numbers
(no decimal fractions or negative signs), so many test users prefer to
depict test results in this form.
Formula to calculate T score

T = 10(X - M)/SD + 5
• When data is not distributed normally and curve is not bell shape

Solution=conversion of standard scores to percentiles

Stanines, stens, c scale
• The stanine (standard nine) scale was developed by the United States
Air Force during World War II.
• In a stanine scale, all raw scores are converted to a single-digit
system of scores ranging from 1 to 9.
• The mean of stanine scores is always 5, and the standard deviation is
approximately 2.
• The transformation from raw scores to stanines is simple: The scores
are ranked from lowest to highest, and the bottom 4 percent of
scores convert to a stanine of 1, the next 7 percent convert to a
stanine of 2, and so on
Stens
Canfield (1951) proposed the 10-unit stens scale, with 5 units above
and 5 units below the mean.

Guilford and Fruchter (1978) proposed the C scale consisting of 11

units.
Selecting a Norm Group
• In the real world, obtaining norm samples is never as simple and
definitive as the hypothetical case previously outlined
• Test developers may opt for a few hundred representative subjects
instead of a larger number.
• Smaller norm groups are truly representative of the population for
which test was designed,
• test developers employ stratified random sampling. This approach
consists of stratifying, (e.g., age, sex, race, social class, educational
level) and then selecting an appropriate percentage of persons at
random from each stratum
Age norms
• An age norm depicts the level of test performance for each separate
age group in the normative data
• purpose TO facilitate same-aged comparisons.
• With age norms, the performance of an examinee is interpreted in
relation to standardization subjects of the same age.
• The age span for a normative age group can vary from a month to a
decade or more, depending on the degree to which test performance
is age-dependent.
Grade norms
• Grade norms are conceptually similar to age norms.
• A grade norm depicts the level of test performance for each separate
grade in the normative sample.
• rarely used with ability test
• Mostly fro achievement test
Local norms, subgroup norms
• Interpretation of test results with group of age, gender, height wise
etc.

• Norms are set according to geographical or organization level

Difference
Difference

Criterion referenced test Norm Referenced Test

• Compare examinees’ • Compare examinees’
performance to a standard performance to one another
• Narrow domain of skills with real- • Broad domain of skills with
world relevance indirect relevance
• Most items of similar difficulty • Items vary widely in difficulty
level level
• Scores usually expressed as a • Scores usually expressed as a
percentage, with passing level standard score, percentile, or
predetermined grade equivalent.
• Educational setting
• “cut-off” score is usually set by a
committee of experts.
• identify an examinee’s relative
mastery (or nonmastery) of
specific, predetermined
competencies
Type of reliability Measures the consistency of …

Test-retest The same test over time

Interrater The same test conducted by different people

Parallel forms Different versions of a test which are designed

to be equivalent

Internal consistency The individual items of a test

Clinical Interview
The interview: preliminary considerations
 be familiar with the personal details of the patient
 Make eye contact,
 shake hands
 introduce yourself
 Put the patient at ease and ask open-ended questions
 Listen attentively
 encourage to ask questions
 Show empathy
a. Communication
• Effect of Communication (treatment outcomes, patient satisfaction,
compliance
• Improves the patient’s comprehension of their illness, reduces pain
and physical symptoms, increases adherence to treatment and results
in greater health care satisfaction
• Clinician must gain an understanding of the patient’s attitude to their
illness, culture, values, gender
Type of patient
• Consider patient active
• informed them about their conditions and exert greater control over
their treatment.
• Mold therapeutic approach according to client/patient
Patients referral
• Who referred the patient
• Why
• What are they expecting
• Patients may resent and even refuse a referral.
• Some will either abandon treatment or try ‘doctor shopping’. Some
may fear the social stigma associated with psychiatric care and others
may not be able to afford it.
Types of interviews
• Interviewing is one of the most difficult clinical skills to master.
• The demands made on the physician are both intellectual and
emotional. Interviewing is often considered part of the ‘art’, in
contrast to the ‘science’, of medicine.
• An empathic, patient-centered interview can bolster the patient’s
sense of self-esteem and lessen the feelings of helplessness that
often accompany an episode of illness.
Patient Centered Interview
• encouraged to take the conversational lead, initiating discussion in
the areas of their experience and expertise: symptoms, worries,
preferences, and values.
Motivational Interviewing
• “MI is a collaborative, goal-oriented style of communication with
particular attention to the language of change. It is designed to
strengthen personal motivation for and commitment to a specific
goal by eliciting and exploring the person’s own reasons for change
within an atmosphere of acceptance and compassion.” (Miller &
Rollnick, 2013, p. 29)
Core elements of MI

Partnership Evocation Acceptance Compassion

Therapist expert in have within themselves Non judgmental,

digging out client resources and skills empathy, Understand
motivation needed for change patients perspective

draws out the person’s practitioner actively

priorities, values, and promotes and
Patients are experts of Respect patient’s right prioritizes clients’
wisdom to explore
their own life to choice for change welfare and wellbeing
reasons for change and
support success in a selfless manne
Core Skills of OARS
• Opening
• Affirmation
• Reflections
• Summarizing
• Attending the language for change
• Exchange of Information
Fundamental Process
• four fundamental processes:
1. Engaging (establish a productive working relationship,
2. Focusing (the client and practitioner expertise to agree on a shared
purpose)
3. Evoking (clinician gently explores and helps the person to build their
own “why” of change through eliciting the client’s ideas and
motivations)
4. Planning (practitioner supports the person to consolidate
commitment to change and develop a plan based on the person’s
own insights and expertise)
Psychosomatic interview
• The psychosomatic interview is a patient-focused dialogue between
physician and patient. It differs from the traditional disease-focused
encounter in that the psychosomatic approach includes the biological,
psychological, and sociocultural domains irrespective of the patients
initial complaint, whether somatic or psychological.
Clinical Interview
• Fundamental assessment and intervention procedure that mental and
behavioral health professionals learn and apply throughout their careers.
• Psychotherapists across all theoretical orientations, professional
disciplines, and treatment settings employ different interviewing skills
(nondirective listening, questioning, confrontation, interpretation,
immediacy, psychoeducation)
• As a process, the clinical interview functions as an assessment (e.g.,
neuropsychological or forensic examinations) or signals the initiation of
counseling or psychotherapy.
• Clinical interviewing involves formal or informal assessment.
Definition
• “a complex and multidimensional interpersonal process that occurs
between a professional service provider and client [or patient]. The
primary goals are (1) assessment and (2) helping. To achieve these
goals, individual clinicians may emphasize structured diagnostic
questioning, spontaneous and collaborative talking and listening, or
both. Clinicians use information obtained in an initial clinical interview
to develop a [therapeutic relationship], case formulation, and
treatment plan”
Models
• five stages:
(1) introduction
(2) opening
(3) body
(4) closing
(5) termination
Introduction
• Therapist intro
• For trust and collaboration
• Initial informed consent
• Confidentiality concept
• Role induction
• Opening session
Opening
• Clinicians should be aware that opening with questions that are more
social (e.g., “How are you today?” or “How was your week?”) prompt
clients in ways that can unintentionally facilitate a less focused and
more rambling opening stage.
• Similarly, beginning with direct questioning before establishing
rapport and trust can elicit defensiveness and dissembling
Body
• The interview purpose governs what happens during the body stage.
• If the purpose is to collect information pertaining to psychiatric
diagnosis, the body includes diagnostic-focused questions.
• When the interview purpose is assessment, the body stage focuses
on information gathering. Clinicians actively question clients about
distressing symptoms, including their frequency, duration, intensity,
and quality
Closing
• (1) providing support and reassurance for clients,
• (2) returning to role induction and client expectations,
• (3) summarizing crucial themes and issues,
• (4) providing an early case formulation or mental disorder diagnosis,
• (5) instilling hope, and, as needed,
• (6) focusing on future homework, future sessions, and scheduling
Termination
• Dealing with termination can be challenging
• Termination involves ending the session and parting ways. The
termination stage requires excellent time management skills; it also
requires intentional sensitivity and responsiveness to how clients
might react to endings in general or leaving the therapy office in
particular
Clinical Interview
• Clinical interviewing is a flexible procedure, mental health
professionals to initiate treatment.
• Clinical, interview term (Piaget)
• Not agree with existing interview methods(not enough for study ing
cognitive development)
• Invented semi –structured interview
• Mixed standardized with spontaneous
Difference

Structured Semi structured

• Directive • Non-directive, subjective
• standardized and involve asking • Non spontaneous
the same questions in the same • Non standardized
order with every client.
• Use of literature and expert
opinion is designed
• Probing questions
Goals
• clinical interview emphasize its two primary functions or goals
a. Assessment
b. Helping
Tenets for set-in CI

1. Therapeutic relationship (define appropriately, set boundaries)

2. Client motivations for therapy (visitors to treatment, complainant,
customers for change)
3. Collaborative goal-setting
Therapist as expert
• Confident
• Competent
• Use experience to deal with client
Factors cause negative outcomes

Premature Lack of
Overconfidence
intervention experience

Less Inappropriate Narrow minded

collaborative therapy approach
Model for Clinical Interviewing
1. Quiet yourself and listen well (instead of focusing on what you are
thinking or feeling)
2. Adopt a helpful and nonjudgmental attitude toward all client.
3. use clinical interviewing behaviors to establish rapport and
develop working relationships with clients (ages, abilities and
disabilities, racial/cultural backgrounds, sexualities, social classes
intellectual functioning)
4. Efficiently and collaboratively obtain valid, reliable, and culturally
appropriate diagnostic or assessment information about clients
and their problems, goals, and sense of wellness
5. individualize and apply counseling or psychotherapy interventions
with cultural sensitivity
6. Evaluate client responses to your counseling or psychotherapy
methods and techniques (e.g., outcomes assessment)
BASIC ATTENDING, LISTENING, AND
ACTION SKILL

“attending behavior the foundation of interviewing. Defined as “

culturally and individually appropriate . . . eye contact, body language,
vocal qualities, and verbal tracking”
Types of attending behaviors
Positive Negative

• open up communication and • Inhibit expression

encourage free expression
Description of attending behaviors
• Eye contact
• Body language: Kinesics, Proxemics

Kinesics has to do with variables associated with physical features and physical movement
of any body part, such as eyes, face, head, hands, legs, and shoulders.

Proxemic refers to personal space and environmental variables such as the distance
between two people and whether any objects are between them
Positive interviewer body language includes the following

• Leaning slightly toward the client.

• Maintaining a relaxed but attentive posture.
• Placing your feet and legs in an unobtrusive position.
• Keeping your hand gestures unobtrusive and smooth.
• Minimizing the number of other movements.
• Making your facial expressions match your feelings or the client ’ s feelings.
• Seating yourself at approximately one arm ’ s length from the client.
• Arranging the furniture to draw you and the client together, not to erect a
barrier
Vocal Qualities
• Paralinguistics consists of voice loudness, pitch, rate, and fluency
Soft
Slow
Gentle tone
Rise and fall appropriate
Verbal Tracking
• demonstrate they are tracking the content of their clients ’ speech by
occasionally repeating key words and phrases.
Negative attending behavior
• Head nodding
• Repeating client last word
• Mirroring
• Eye contact
Nondirective Listening Responses
• Silence
• Clarification (accuracy)
• Paraphrase (surety of hearing)
• The Sensory - Based Paraphrase (I see, I hear, I feel…..)
• The Metaphorical Paraphrase (Use of phrases)
• Intentionally Directive Paraphrases (I have flashbacks all the time.)
• Summarization
• Validation
Directive listening responses
• Interpretive reflection of feeling: Statement indicating what feelings
the interviewer believes are underlying the client’s thoughts or
actions.
• Interpretation: Statement indicating what meaning the interviewer
believes a client’s emotions, thoughts, or actions represent. Often
includes references to past experiences
• Question: Query that directly elicits information from a client. There
are many forms of questions
• Validation; Statement that supports, affirms, approves of, or validates
feelings articulated by clients
• Confrontation: Statement that points out or identifies a client
incongruity or discrepancy. Ranges from very gentle to very harsh.
Types of Question
• Open ended
• Close ended
• Swing
• Indirect or Implied Questions
• Projective Questions
• The Pre - Treatment Change Question
• Scaling Questions
• Percentage Question
• Percentage Questions
• Pre-suppositional Question
• The Miracle Question
• Externalizing Questions
• Exception Questions