Principles and theories

of numeracy and
science development
• Teaching and learning of principles and
theories of numeracy and science
development are underpinned by two
issues;
i. Teachers’ approaches to teaching
(i.e., how they teach),
ii. Conceptions teachers hold about
teaching (i.e., what they believe
about teaching)
• Teachers believe that mathematics is a set of facts and
that memorizing these facts is an appropriate route to
learning mathematics or science.
• Some teachers still use traditional ways of teaching
than modern ideas (e.g., constructivist ideas), their
actual classroom behavior is more or less ‘traditional’
• Teachers rarely offer science-related activities in any
context, either planned or spontaneous.
oFor example, children arrive at kindergarten with lower
science readiness than in any other area.
oMany teachers become bias against computer
technology, considering it inappropriate in classrooms
for young children
The two kinds of beliefs are linked to content knowledge and
pedagogical content knowledge

Ultimately, they influence the instructional practice of

teachers.

Some view mathematics as only ‘counting, adding,

subtracting, and knowing shapes, and have little or no
knowledge of the standards of mathematics
o Some consider mathematics a difficult subject to teach.
o Some focus on computational skills rather than
problem-solving while demonstrating more authority-
based, teacher-centered instruction rather than
observing and listening to their students’ solutions
There is evidence that children come to school with prior-
to-school mathematics experience and competence,

Supportive parent-child interactions are needed if

mathematical experience is to be turned into valued
mathematical knowledge.

Children frequently engage in mathematical conversations

with adults, but they do not necessarily understand the
mathematics involved in the same way that adults do.
There are reports that teachers do not adequately and
directly organise mathematical learning opportunities for
children.

Behaviourist, constructivist and sociocultural explain

about supportive environments in children participate
meaningfully:
• Flexibility that allows the transformation of activities in ways
that encourage childrenʼs participation from novice to expert
status
ii. Age-related and socially organised changes that occur
as activities are modified for children by others,
iii. Adults assign children of different ages to distinct settings
and tasks

iv. Changes in activities that are brought about by children

through their participation, such as when children interpret and
transform games in varied ways.
v. Moment-to-moment changes in instructional interactions, as
when parents adjust their assistance in response to childrenʼs
ongoing difficulties
 • The two main creators of
behaviourist approaches to
learning were Skinner (1972)
Behaviorism and Watson (1996).
oWatson stated that human
behaviour is a result of
particular stimuli extracted from
particular responses, while
Skinner remarked that habits
each of us develop stem from
our distinctive operant learning
experiences.
o Behaviourists highlight three aspects of learning;
i. Learning is manifested by a change in behavior.
ii. Behavioral change is relatively permanent.
iii. Change in behavior does not occur immediately
following the learning experience
• Behaviorists apply rewards and
punishment systems in their classrooms
effectively.
o They believe that rewards have
significant roles in learning.
o The teaching methods based on
behaviourism emphasize the claim that
behaviour can be shaped by
reinforcement through drill and practice.
o Clear objectives are set to help
students and teachers
• In a mathematics class,
o The teacher reviews previous material and homework
and then demonstrates low-level problem-solving followed
by seatwork imitating the teacher’s demonstration
o Teacher as a transmitter of knowledge (that is, teaching
by telling)
oThe common method of teaching mathematics is teacher-
centered and giving lectures is the dominant practice.
Cognitivism
• The cognitive approach is another important theory by
Piaget (1936).
• Cognitive development is a progressive reorganization
of mental processes as a result of biological maturation
and environmental experience.
• It suggests that learning is based upon how people
mentally process stimuli encountered.
Cognitivism
• Early in 1956, Benjamin Bloom created a taxonomy for
cognitive skills constituting knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation for use
and develop children’s skills.
• The six stages have been revised in the study by
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) as to Remembering,
Understanding, Applying, Analyzing, Evaluating, and
Creating.
 Cognitivism
• The theoretical perspective implies that;
i. A behavioural analysis of instruction is often inadequate
to explain the effects of instruction on learning.
ii. Both cognitive and behavioural approaches continue to
be a part of educational psychology today.
iii. The main application of this theory in the teaching of
mathematics can be seen in the skill of problem-solving.
o Problem-solving is a significant element of
mathematics education.
o Problem-solving in mathematics helps students to
develop a wide range of complex mathematics
structures and gain the capability of solving a variety of
real-life problems
 Cognitivism-Problem solving
o Mathematics teachers should focus on problem-solving
throughout their teaching since it encompasses skills and
functions which are an important part of everyday life.
o Problem-solving helps people to adapt to changes and
unexpected problems in their careers and other aspects of
their lives.
o It lies beyond mathematics teaching dimensions so that
students experience the influence of mathematics in the
world around them.
 Problem-solving
• Skills and approaches to problem-solving have a four-step
approach:
i. Understanding the problem to solve a problem
ii. Devising a problem-solving plan
- Draw pictures;
- Use a variable and choose helpful names for variables or
unknowns;
- Be systematic;
- Solve a simpler version of the problem;
- Guess and check, Trial and error; Guess and test
(Guessing is okay);
- Look for a pattern or patterns; and
- Make a list;
 Problem solving
iii. Carrying out the plan
iv. Looking back (review) if the plan answers the question

• It is important to understand that problem-solving has several

advantages;
i. It helps to increase reasoning skills among students
ii. It increases the level of students’ mathematics achievement
iii. It can be utilized to solve problems that arise in real life.
Constructivism
• This is a learner-centred approach that emphasizes the
importance of individuals actively constructing their
knowledge and understanding through guidance from
the teacher.
o In the constructivist view, teachers should not attempt
to simply pour information into children’s minds.
o Children should be given confidence to discover their world, find out
knowledge, consider, and think critically with vigilant supervision and
significant guidance of the teacher.
• Nowadays, constructivism might involve a focus on collaborations;
children working together strive to know and understand.
Constructivism is identified as teaching that concentrates on the
vigorous function of the learner in making sense of information and
establishing knowledge (Woolfolk, 2008). Constructivists emphasize
that students should form their own interpretation of evidence and
submit it for review. Constructivist teachers encourage students to
constantly assess how the activity is helping them gain understanding.
By questioning themselves and their strategies, students in the
constructivist classroom ideally become "expert learners."
• The constructivist approach was proposed by William James’ and John
Dewey’s philosophies of education and comes from many other people
such as Jean Piaget, Maria Montessori, and Lev Vygotsky and from
educational movements such as education, inquiry or discovery
learning, open education and whole progressive language teaching
(Gagnon & Collay, 2001).
• Since the constructivist emphasizes that students form their own
interpretation of evidences and submit them for review, within
mathematics education, students have to build their own understanding
of every concept of mathematics, so that the main responsibility of
teaching is not explaining, lecturing, or attempting to convey
mathematical knowledge, but creating situations for students that will
promote students making the essential mental structures. Obviously, a
lesson according to constructivism varies significantly with the
conventional class type of teacher-as-lecturer (Hanley, 1994).
• Constructivists believe that students are not passive recipients of
knowledge but they create (construct) new mathematical knowledge
by reflecting on their physical and mental actions. According to
constructivists, learning reflects a social process in which children
engage in dialogue and discussion among themselves as well as others
as they develop intellectually (Hanley, 1994). This method is the best
method to move away from the traditional method of teacher-centered
practices, and more empowerment to the teacher and students both for
better critical thinking and creating changes in old teaching methods
(Sawada et al., 2002).
• Hanley (1994) explains in more detail on the implementation of
constructivist teaching which comprises the following procedures for
teachers: seeking out and using students’ questions and ideas,
collaborating on and encouraging the use of alternative sources for
information, encouraging students to challenge each other's
conceptualizations and ideas, encouraging self-analysis, involving
students in seeking information that can be applied in solving real-life
problems, emphasizing career awareness, especially those related to
science and technology.
• Discovery Learning Discovery learning points to learning that occurs
once students are required to find out something by themselves. For
example, rather than telling students the value, the teacher asks them
to measure spherical objects to find out the value themselves
(Cruickshank, Bainer & Metcalf, 1995). Teachers use discovery
learning to achieve three educational goals. Firstly, they would like
learners to recognize how to find out things and think on their own. In
fact, they would like them to be less dependent on getting knowledge
from teachers and acknowledge the conclusion of others.
• Discovery Learning
• Discovery learning points to learning that occurs once students are
required to find out something by themselves. For example, rather
than telling students the value, the teacher asks them to measure
spherical objects to find out the value themselves (Cruickshank,
Bainer & Metcalf, 1995). Teachers use discovery learning to achieve
three educational goals. Firstly, they would like learners to recognize
how to find out things and think on their own. In fact, they would like
them to be less dependent on getting knowledge from teachers and
acknowledge the conclusion of others. S
• Secondly, discovery learning users would like learners to see in what
way knowledge is achieved. It indicates that teachers would like
students to be enabled to learn by gathering, organizing, and analyzing
information to achieve their own conclusion. Thirdly, the teachers
would like learners to employ their higher order thinking skills.
Among other things, they want students to be able to analyze,
synthesize, and evaluate (Cruickshank et al., 1995).
• One of the characteristics of discovery learning is that the role of the
teacher is not imparting knowledge but rather creating and guiding
classroom experiences in which learners are engaged to discover
knowledge. The second characteristic of discovery learning is that
while leaners are dealing with discovery, the teacher motivates them to
think profoundly. The third feature is that learners acknowledge the
challenge of realizing something for themselves rather than requiring
the teacher to provide for them answers
Everyday experiences in promoting
Numeracy and Science Development
Everyday experiences in promoting
Numeracy and Science Development

Research on • It is known that children can distinguish

home experiences between solid and liquid substances
can facilitate • they are capable of categorising objects
children’s into their material classes
develop science • Can name and describe their
and numeracy characteristics
skills;
Early experiences-cont

iv. Children can extend their concepts based on everyday

experiences with appropriate learning environments (i.e.,
stimulating interactions with adults on age-appropriate content)

v. Early interest in science predicts participation in later informal

learning opportunities related to science
Reflective Question

What home and school environment that can

facilitate the science interests and participation
of children?
The
bioecological Proximal or educational processes mainly
model by interactions between the parent and the child, and
Bronfenbrenner
and Morris
(2006 ) identifies
distal and
proximal
processes that Distal factors are structural family characteristics
affect the child’s such as home language, education, income, or
development.
occupational status are indicators of
socioeconomic status
i. Distal factors in terms of structural family characteristics such
as home language, education, income, or occupational status
are indirectly mediated by proximal processes
ii. Distal factors include also personal factors such as parental
interest and beliefs about oneself (e.g., self-confidence),
about the child’s development, the importance of domain-
specific education or parents’ aspirations regarding their
child’s academic career, and attitudes towards a certain
domain
The home environment has a significant influence on children ´s
emotional and intellectual growth, school readiness, and their
sub- sequent academic achievement

Children’s early science knowledge are associated with both

structural family characteristics and later science performance in
school

Majority of research examine the effects of HLE factor especially the family’s
SES or parental beliefs on children’s outcomes with less on how parental beliefs
and interest, structural family characteristics, and educational processes play
together and how they are associated with children’s early science-related
learning.
• The quality of the home environment particularly parent-child
interactions constitutes the main factor;
i. Daily joint activities and emotional support create
opportunities for numeracy, literacy, or science-related
learning
ii. Having science-related content including the guidance of
children’s interests, stimulating curiosity about natural
phenomena, and creating opportunities to learn about
science and scientific inquiry, such as observing, measuring,
and comparing
• Opportunities such as joint reading of children’s science
and nature books, performing science experiments (e.g.,
planting seeds and observing the changes in growth
under different conditions of soil, light, water, or
temperature), hands-on activities (e.g., collecting and
comparing stones, leaves, etc.) promote science skills
development.
• Playing with sand and water or engaging with children in
interactions about their observing natural phenomena
(e.g., the sinking of stones and floating of branches on the
water) are also considered science-related learning
activities
• Talking about an occurrence of the rainbow or planned
experiment, playing with water and experiencing it as a
liquid they provide opportunities for children and parents
to talk and learn about science.
In school;
• Everyday life in the science classroom is related to
someone’s ‘everyday life’ in the ‘real world (a world
that is not school).
• In science education discourse, ‘everyday life’ is
brought into the science classroom, by a teacher, a
student, or a piece of text.
 In school

Students describe and categorize

different substances such as tea
and mixtures or solutions. They also question on
examples of mixtures or on
how pressure is used in
‘everyday life’, thus
enculturation into science
 Enculturation into science
• ‘Everyday life’ can be promoted through
different activities, some being visualization of
scientific concepts or relations is superior in
solving ‘everyday life’ problems. For example;
How can you remove a stain of dirt on your
shirt?
• ‘Everyday life’ questions are good to test
students’ development of a more complex
understanding.
• Questions on ‘everyday life’ are not about
formulating ways of acting in everyday life, but
rather about formulating what scientific
aspects are relevant in a particular ‘everyday
life’ problem.
 Engaging children in societal challenges
(e.g. environmental issues), and the role of
science in society, enhance education of
scientifically literate citizens.
In School

‘Everyday life’ artifacts in laboratory work,

such as coloring and plastics cups make
science interesting.
 Developing education of scientifically literate
citizens;

In i. Learning to cope with ‘everyday life’ involving

questions concerning how to deal with certain
school ‘everyday life’ issues,

ii. Teacher-led discussion on environmental

issues like pros and cons concerning pesticides
and human impact on different ecosystems
 Making science interesting

- ‘Everyday life’ is used as a

pedagogical tool for motivating
students and making science
classes more fun and interesting;
a) fill a glass with water, put a
paper on top of the glass, and
turn it around.
 In School

Instructional approaches
contextualizing science Therefore, it should connect
learning in terms of the conceptual level about
describing how the observed
students’ everyday
scientific phenomenon or
experiences both bridge concept is linked to
the gap between their experienced everyday
everyday lives and phenomenon
support science learning
 i. Instructional guidance and scaffolding are
required to contribute to conceptual learning

ii. Integrating practical and affective dimensions

of life
In school
iii. Teachers you should know that past and
present should be promoted

iv. Participation in daily activities in the science

classroom, students are enculturated into ways
of acting, ways of knowing
• The processes of learning in addition to those making
links to everyday experiences should encompass the
fullness of life along with its affective and bodily aspects
Technology in Teaching and Learning Numeracy
and Science in Grade Three
It should be understood that;
• Many jobs today require technology use than in
the past years,
• More homes have computers than in years past,
and children and adults use interactive games,
and,
• The use of technology and teaching students to
use it has become a high priority in public schools.
 • Computer technology-
enabled pedagogical
methods and many programs
have been trying to use it to
Technology improve education quality.
in numeracy • However, the effectiveness of
and science technology use in school is
not guaranteed simply by
their availability in schools.
• There is a growing recognition of the need to
address the quality of classroom pedagogy to
improve retention and completion rates and
achieve meaningful learning outcomes.
 There has been over-reliance on basic recall,
rote learning, memorization, repetition, and
recitation.
Technology-cont
Use of educational technology was recommended to
encourage pedagogic practices that are interactive as
they are more likely to impact on student learning and
hence be effective.

Education systems in diverse countries are being

reformed to shift the teaching paradigm towards
student-centeredness

There is a recognition of the potential of ICT to offer

access to quality education,
With all the A reasonable number of the population has no
benefits of electricity
technology
in teaching
and There is a shortage of teachers
learning
numeracy
and Budget restricting full utilization of educational
science; technology (Ed Tech) in all schools
 EdTech could be leveraged to address
Benefits of problems that would be too costly or
technology resource-intensive to solve through other
channels
in teaching EdTech could also be used to monitor
and teaching and learning attendance and
learning
learning
numeracy EdTech can be used to address input
and shortages especially computers, textbooks,
notebooks, teacher records, and teaching
science guides
Assignment
• In groups, read the article by Israel Kibirige (2023)
i. Extract and show the relevance of such challenges
primary teachers face in Implementing ICT in Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) in
the Post-Pandemic Era in Uganda with practical
experience in Tanzania
ii. As an expected classroom teacher, how can you
address challenges identified to facilitate the use of
EdTech in focused subjects