RESEARCH

DESIGN
Presented By: Dr. Naailah Faatima
Guide: Dr. Arshad Hussain
 CONTENTS

PART 1
◦ Meaning of Research Design
◦ Need of Research Design
◦ Features of a good Design
◦ Process of Research Design
◦ Types of Research Design
 MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN
◦ “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to
combine relevance to the research purpose with economy
in procedure.”

◦ The research design is the conceptual structure within

which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint
for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.
◦ Its a Framework / blue print for the research plan of
action.
◦ Its a Master plan that specifies the methods and
procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed
information
◦ Its a Strategy for how the data will be collected
Research design constitute decisions like:
1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data be found?
6. What periods of time will the study include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What techniques of data collection will be used?
9. How will the data be analysed?
[Link] what style will the report be prepared?
Keeping in view the above stated design decisions, one may split
the overall research design into the following parts:

The sampling design The observational design

deals with the method of relates to the conditions
selecting items to be under which the
observed for the given observations are to be
study made;

The statistical design The operational design

concerns with the question deals with the techniques by
of how many items are to which the procedures
be observed and how the specified in sampling,
information and data statistical and observational
gathered are to be analysed designs can be carried out.
In brief, research design must, at least, contain—

a) Clear statement of the research problem;

b) Procedures and techniques to be used for
gathering information;
c) Population to be studied; and
d) Methods to be used in processing and
analysing data.
 NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

◦ It facilitates the Smooth flow of various research

processes.
◦ It would result in more accurate results with minimum
usage of time, effort and money
◦ It organize the study in a certain way defending the
advantages of doing while being aware and caution about
potential disadvantages.
 NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

◦ It maintains control to avoid bias that may affect the

outcomes.
◦ Research design helps in advance Planning of the methods
which are adopted for collecting the relevant data.
◦ It provides the scheme for answering research question.
FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH
DESIGN
◦ Generally, the design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability
of the data collected and analysed is considered a good design.
◦ The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be
the best design in many investigations.
◦ Similarly, a design which yields maximal information and provides an
opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is
considered most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many
research problems.
 RESEARCH DESIGN PROCESS
1. THE DESIGN & PLANNING PHASE:
In the design phase the researcher makes a number of decisions about the
methods to be used to address the Research Question.
2. IDENTIFYING THE POPULATION TO BE STUDIED:
oThe term population refers to the aggregate or totality of all the objects,
members that conform to a set of specifications.
oThe researcher identifies the population during the planning phase.
oThe researcher must know the characteristics of the study
3. SPECIFYING METHODS TO MEASURE THE RESEARCH
VARIABLES:
o The researcher must develop a method to observe & measure research variable as
accurately as possible.
o A variety of quantitative data collection approaches exist, e.g..bio-physiological
measurements, self reports, observation.

4. DEVELOP DATA COLLECTION PLAN:

Data collection methods vary depending on the RQ & methodology.
The task of measuring research variables & to develop data collection plan is a
complex process
5. DESIGNING THE SAMPLING PLAN:
o As entire population cannot be studied researcher uses a small fraction of the population.-
sample.
o The researcher employs many methods to obtain the sample.
o In applying the methods the researcher ensures representativeness of the selected sample.
o Methods of sampling include probability & non-probability sampling

6. FINALIZING & RE-VIEWING THE RESEARCH PLAN:

o Researchers must finalize the research plan by individuals, groups before the actual
implementation.
o The researcher must have their research plan approved by special committees as to ensure
that the plan does not violate ethics.
7. CONDUCTING PILOT STUDY & REVISION:
o The primary focus of the pilot study is to assess the adequacy of the data collection
plan.
o The researcher needs to know the adequacy of the technical equipment.
o The tool for data collection is validated & is termed as pre-testing.
o Pilot study should be carried out with care as a major study.
o The pilot study subjects should be chosen from the same population as of the main
study.
 DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS
Different research designs can be conveniently described if we
categorize them as:

DESCRIPTIVE & HYPOTHESIS-

EXPLORATORY
DIAGNOSTIC TESTING
Research studies
Research studies Research studies
1. EXPLORATORY
RESEARCH DESIGN
 1. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN:
◦ Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research
studies.
◦ The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for
more precise investigation or of developing the working hypotheses from
an operational point of view.
◦ The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and
insights.
◦ As such the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible
enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a
problem under study.
Generally, the following three methods are used for
formulative research studies:

The survey of concerning literature

The experience survey

The analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples.

 The Survey Of Concerning Literature
◦ Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated
as a basis for further research.
◦ It may also be considered whether the already stated hypotheses suggest new hypothesis.
◦ In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work already done by others,
but in cases where hypotheses have not yet been formulated, his task is to review the
available material for deriving the relevant hypotheses from it.
◦ He should also make an attempt to apply concepts and theories developed in different
research contexts to the area in which he is himself working.
◦ Sometimes the works of creative writers also provide a fertile ground for hypothesis
formulation and as such may be looked into by the researcher.
 Experience Survey
◦ It means the survey of people who have had practical experience with the
problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the
relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem.
◦ For such a survey people who are competent and can contribute new ideas may
be carefully selected as respondents to ensure a representation of different types
of experience.
◦ The respondents so selected may then be interviewed by the investigator.
◦ The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic
questioning of informants.
◦ Hence, it is often considered desirable to send a copy of the questions to be
discussed to the respondents well in advance.
◦ This will also give an opportunity to the respondents for doing some advance
thinking over the various issues involved so that, at the time of interview, they
may be able to contribute effectively.
◦ Thus, an experience survey may enable the researcher to define the problem
more concisely and help in the formulation of the research hypothesis.
◦ This survey may as well provide information about the practical possibilities for
doing different types of research.
 Analysis Of ‘insight-stimulating’ Examples
◦ It is also a fruitful method for suggesting hypotheses for research. It is particularly
suitable in areas where there is little experience to serve as a guide.
◦ This method consists of the intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon
in which one is interested.
◦ For this purpose the existing records, if any, may be examined, the unstructured
interviewing may take place, or some other approach may be adopted.
◦ Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the researcher
to draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation are the main
features which make this method an appropriate procedure for evoking insights.
2. DESCRIPTIVE & DIAGNOSTIC
RESEARCH STUDIES
 2. DESCRIPTIVE & DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH
STUDIES

◦ Descriptive research studies is a type of research that describes characteristics

of population, situation, or phenomenon that is being studied..
◦ For example, a researcher researching the income of the employees in a
company, and the relationship with their performance.
◦ A survey will be carried out to gather enough data about the income of the
employees, then their performance will be evaluated and compared to their
income. This will help determine whether a higher income means better
performance and low income means lower performance or vice versa.
 2. DESCRIPTIVE & DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH
STUDIES

◦ Diagnostic research studies is a type of research design that tries to

investigate the underlying cause of a certain condition or phenomenon.
◦ It assist in learning more about the elements that contribute to certain
difficulties or challenges that people may be experiencing.
◦ This design typically consists of three research stages, which are as follows:
◦ ● Inception of the issue
◦ ● Diagnosis of the issue
◦ ● Solution for the issue
The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on
the following:
1. Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being
made?)
2. Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be
adopted?)
3. Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
4. Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period
should the data be related?)
5. Processing and analysing the data.
6. Reporting the findings
The difference between research designs in respect of the above two types of research
studies is summarised in tabular form as under:
3. EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH STUDIES
 1. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN:
◦ Hypothesis-testing research studies are generally known as
experimental studies.
◦ He found that by dividing agricultural field into different blocks
and then conducting experiments in each of these blocks, whatever
information is collected and inferences drawn from them, happens
to be more reliable. Professor R.A. Fisher’s.
◦ This fact inspired him to develop certain experimental designs for Rothamsted - Agricultural RC
in England
testing hypotheses concerning scientific investigations.
◦ Since experimental designs originated in the context of
agricultural operations, we still several terms of agriculture (such
as treatment, yield, plot, block etc.) in experimental designs
◦ •Experimental research designs are concerned with the examination
of effect of independent variable on dependent variable, where
◦ The INDEPENDENT VARIABLE is manipulated through treatment
and the effect of those treatment are observed on dependent variable.
◦ Researcher have complete control over the extraneous variable.
 Important Experimental Design
Informal Formal rela
t
t ic ated Experimental Experimental con ively
h i s t m
p
Less so analysis Designs Designs p re ro l a n o r e
c d
fo r m o
f pro ise sta use
on c t
based in ana edures istical
e n c e s Before-and- Completely lysi fo r
differ s
a g n it u d es after without randomized
m
control design design

After-only
Randomized
with control
block design
design

Before-and-
Factorial
after with
designs
control design
 INFORMAL
Before-and-after without control design
◦ Single test group or area is selected and the dependent variable is measured
before the introduction of the treatment.
◦ The treatment is then introduced and the dependent variable is measured again
after the treatment has been introduced.
◦ The effect of the treatment would be equal to the level of the phenomenon after
the treatment minus the level of the phenomenon before the treatment.
 INFORMAL
After-only with control design
◦ Two groups or areas (test area and control area)are selected
and the treatment is introduced into the test area only.
◦ The dependent variable is then measured in both the areas
at the same time.
◦ Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value of the
dependent variable in the control area from its value in the
test area.
 INFORMA
Before-and-after with control design L
◦ In this design two areas are selected and the dependent variable is measured in both the
areas for an identical time-period before the treatment. The treatment is then introduced into
the test area only, and the dependent variable is measured in both for an identical time-
period after the introduction of the treatment.
◦ The treatment effect is determined by subtracting the change in the dependent variable in the
control area from the change in the dependent variable in test area.
 FORMAL
Completely randomized design (CRD):
◦ Its also known as Single Factor Design and is useful in investigating the effect of one
independent variable on the dependent variable.
◦ The independent variable will have a number of categories and each category is called the
treatment level. For example, AGE (Early, Middle and Late adulthood) DRUG (Low,
medium & High dosage)
◦ In this design, the analysis of variance is performed to determine whether these treatments
caused a significant difference in outcomes among test units.
◦ So replication of treatment are allocated to experimental units at random
◦ The design can however measure only one type of variance which occurs between
treatments.
◦ The only concern in this design is the impact of all extraneous variables are assumed to be
constant over all the treatment groups.
 FORMAL
Randomized Block Design (RBD):

◦ RBD is similar to Completely Randomized Design(CRD), As there is only

one treatment (experimental) variable being used.
◦ However, in RBD, a SECOND variable known as “Blocking Variable” is
included whose impact the researcher wants to control while measuring the
impact of the treatment variable on the dependent variable.
 FORMAL
Randomized Block Design (RBD):
EXAMPLE:
◦ A researcher wants to conduct an experiment to determine which environment
is best suited for studying – A library, In one’s own Room or Outside.
◦ A total of 30 students from a university voluntarily participated in the
experiment
◦ Now the researcher assume that “GENDER” has as effect on the results.
◦ So here blocking variable will be GENDER.
 FORMAL
Factorial Design
◦ They are used in experiments where the effects of varying more than one
factor are to be determined.
◦ Independent variable is the variable of interest that the experimenter will
manipulate.
◦ The dependent variable, on the other hand, is the variable that the
researcher then measures.
◦ By doing this, researchers can see if making changes to the independent
variable results in some type of change in the dependent variable.
 FORMAL
Factorial Design

◦ For example: a researcher wants to do an experiment looking at whether sleep

deprivation has a negative impact during a driving test. If the study were to
perform the experiment using these variables – the sleep deprivation being the
independent variable and the performance on the driving test being the
dependent variable – it would be an example of a simple experiment.
◦ However, added a second independent variable of interest (sex of the driver)
into the study, which now makes it a factorial design.
 FORMAL
Factorial Design

◦ It is used to examine the effects, that manipulation of at least 2

Independent variables has upon the dependent variable.

◦ It allows the researcher to measure not only the primary/main

effect but also the interaction effects of different levels of the
independent variables.
 FORMAL
Types Of Factorial Design
◦ Simple factorial designs: is also termed as a ‘two-factor-factorial design’,
◦ Complex factorial design: is known as ‘multifactor-factorial design.’
◦ Simple factorial design may either be a 2 × 2 simple factorial design,

The table represents a 2 x 2 factorial design

in which one independent variable is the type
of psychotherapy used to treat a sample of
depressed people (behavioural vs cognitive)
and the other is the duration of that therapy
(short vs long).
 FORMAL
Factorial Design
◦ For example, researchers want to test the effects of a memory-enhancing drug.
Participants are given one of three different drug doses, and then asked to either
complete a simple or complex memory task. The researchers note that the
effects of the memory drug are more pronounced with the simple memory tasks,
but not as apparent when it comes to the complex tasks. In this 3×2 factorial
design, there is an interaction effect between the drug dosage and the
complexity of the memory task.
◦ The researchers can explore the effects of each independent variable separately
by averaging across all levels of the other independent variable. This procedure
is called looking at the main effect.
RESEARCH DESIGN BY GROUPING:

◦ Another classification of study design types is based on how

participants are categorized.
◦ In most situations, grouping is determined by the research premise
and the method used to sample individuals.
◦ Cross-Sectional
◦ Cohort
 Cohort
◦ A cohort study is a sort of longitudinal research that takes a cross-section of a
cohort (a group of people who have a common trait) at predetermined time
intervals. It’s a form of panel research in which all of the people in the group
have something in common.
◦ It is the closest design to a clinical trial, since exposed and unexposed patients
are followed prospectively, and the outcome is recorded
◦ In cohort studies, the investigator does not intervene; thus, patients are not
allocated to treatment groups in either a randomized or a nonrandomized
fashion as in clinical trials.
 Cohort
◦ For example: In a study aiming to assess the impact of
orthodontic therapy on alveolar bone levels, subjects
exposed and unexposed to orthodontic treatment might be
followed over time, and an assessment can be made to see
whether patients who had orthodontic therapy have
diminished alveolar bone levels.
◦ In this example, the groups are included in the study on the
basis of exposure or no exposure.
◦ Although cohort studies record information on exposures,
follow subjects over time, and record outcomes, the
information can be collected prospectively or
retrospectively.
 Cross-Sectional
◦ Cross-sectional study is an observational study in which the exposure and the
outcome are determined at the same time point for each study participant.
◦ Exposure is a potential risk factor, and we are interested in whether it is associated
with the outcome, which could be a condition, disease, health measure, or behavior
of interest.
◦ For example, if we are assessing the association between orthodontic therapy and
periodontal conditions, the exposure is the orthodontic therapy, and the outcome is
the periodontal condition, which can be measured as sulcus depth, bone height, and
so on.
 Cross-Sectional
◦ Cross-sectional studies comprise the simplest individual-level observational study
design.
◦ Example of a cross-sectional study, we can association between periodontal disease and
oral hygiene habits in adult patients.
◦ The outcome is the presence or absence of periodontal disease, and the exposure is
current oral hygiene practices such as frequency of brushing and use of dental floss.
◦ This study can be carried out by interviewing participants about their oral hygiene habits
and at the same time by assessing periodontal status clinically.
◦ Thus, outcomes and exposure data are assessed at the same time.
◦ When we investigate the relationship between an exposure and an outcome, it is often
difficult to establish a causal relationship.
◦ If the groups we are comparing have different characteristics or other factors that are
related to the outcome, this can lead to an apparent association between the exposure
and the outcome. This phenomenon is known as confounding.
◦ For example, let's assume hypothetically that we are interested in determining the
association between toothbrushing and dental caries in 2 groups of young children.
◦ If all other parameters were equal, we would expect that any differences in dental
caries between treatment groups would be the result of brushing habits.
◦ Now, imagine that another risk factor associated with caries (the outcome)
was unequally distributed between the exposed and unexposed groups
(good and not-so good brushers).
◦ What if this second risk factor were sugar content in the diet, and what if
the good brushers consumed more sugar than did the not-so good brushers?
◦ If we accept as facts that consumption of sugar promotes caries and that
sugar consumption is higher among the good brushers, it is likely that the
effect of good brushing on caries will be “diluted” because of another
factor, which would be acting against caries prevention in the good brushers
group.
◦ This factor is confusing or blurring the association between exposure
(brushing) and outcome (caries), and it is called a confounder.
◦ Confounding factors should be considered and minimized by using proper
methods to achieve balance for known and unknown factors between the
treatment groups.
 BENEFITS OF A RESEARCH DESIGN:

◦ Research helps in getting a deeper understanding of the subject.

◦ Helps learn about its varied aspects as well as its different sources like
primary and secondary.
◦ It helps to resolve the complex problems in any field through critical analysis
and measurement of unsolved problems.
◦ We also get to know about how a hypothesis is created by weighing
preserved assumptions.
 CONCLUSION

◦ There are several research designs and the researcher must decide in advance
of collection and analysis of data as to which design would prove to be more
appropriate for their research project.
◦ The researcher must give due weight to various points such as the type of
universe and its nature, the objective of the study, the resource list or the
sampling frame, desired standard of accuracy and when taking a decision in
respect of the design for his research project.
 REFRENCES

◦ Kothari C.R., (2010), Research Methodology: Methods and Technique, New Delhi: New
Age International Publishers
◦ Kumar Ranjit, (2005), Research Methodology-A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners,
([Link].), Singapore: Pearson Education.
◦ Essentials of preventive and community dentistry, 2nd edition, Peter S, 2004
◦ Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 2014;146:534-5
◦ Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 2014;145:119-20
Thank You