WEEK 7

EQUIVALENCE RELATION PARTITION

 INTRODUCTION
• EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS
• Consider a nonempty set S. A relation R on S is
an equivalence relation if R is reflexive,
symmetric, and transitive. That is, R is an
equivalence relation on S if it has the following
three properties:
(1) For every a ∈ S, aRa.
(2) (2) If aRb, then bRa.
(3) (3) If aRb and bRc, then aRc.
• The general idea behind an equivalence
relation is that it is a classification of objects
which are in some way “alike.” In fact, the
relation “=” of equality on any set S is an
equivalence relation; that is:
– (1) a = a for every a ∈ S.
– (2) If a = b, then b = a.
– (3) If a = b, b = c, then a = c.
 Equivalence Relations and Partitions
• This subsection explores the relationship
between equivalence relations and partitions
on a non-empty set S.
• Recall first that a partition P of S is a collection
{Ai} of nonempty subsets of S with the
following two properties:
– (1) Each a ∈ S belongs to some Ai .
– (2) If Ai = Aj then Ai ∩ Aj = ∅.
• In other words, a partition P of S is a subdivision
of S into disjoint nonempty sets.

• Suppose R is an equivalence relation on a set S.

For each a ∈ S, let [a] denote the set of elements
of S to which a is related under R; that is:
– [a] = {x | (a, x) ∈ R}

•We call [a] the equivalence class of a in S; any b ∈

[a] is called a representative of the equivalence
class.
• The collection of all equivalence classes of
elements of S under an equivalence relation R
is denoted by S/R, that is,
– S/R = {[a] | a ∈ S}

• It is called the quotient set of S by R. The

fundamental property of a quotient set is
contained in the following theorem.
• Theorem 1: Let R be an equivalence relation
on a set S. Then S/R is a partition of S.
Specifically:
• (i) For each a in S, we have a ∈ [a].
• (ii) [a] = [b] if and only if (a, b) ∈ R.
• (iii) If [a] = [b], then [a] and [b] are disjoint.

• Conversely, given a partition {Ai } of the set S,

there is an equivalence relation R on S such
that the sets Ai are the equivalence classes.
 EXAMPLE 1
• (a) Consider the relation R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2,
2), (3, 3)} on S = {1, 2, 3}.

One can show that R is reflexive, symmetric, and

transitive, that is, that R is an equivalence relation.
Also:

– [1] = {1, 2}, [2] = {1, 2}, [3] = {3}

• Observe that [1] = [2] and that S/R = {[1], [3]} is a

partition of S. One can choose either {1, 3} or {2, 3} as
• a set of representatives of the equivalence classes.
 PARTIAL ORDERING RELATIONS
• A relation R on a set S is called a partial
ordering or a partial order of S if R is reflexive,
antisymmetric, and transitive. A set S together
with a partial ordering R is called a partially
ordered set or poset.
 EXAMPLE 2.14
• (a) The relation ⊆ of set inclusion is a partial
ordering on any collection of sets since set
inclusion has the three desired properties.
That is,
– (1) A ⊆ A for any set A.
– (2) If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A, then A = B.
– (3) If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C.

• (b) The relation ≤ on the set R of real numbers

is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive.
Thus ≤ is a partial ordering on R.
 WEEK 8

ORDERED SETS
• ORDERED SETS
• Suppose R is a relation on a set S satisfying the
following three properties:

– [O1] (Reflexive) For any a ∈ S, we have aRa.

– [O2] (Antisymmetric) If aRb and bRa, then a = b.
– [O3] (Transitive) If aRb and bRc, then aRc.

• Then R is called a partial order or, simply an order

relation, and R is said to define a partial ordering of
S. The set S with the partial order is called a partially
ordered set or, simply, an ordered set or poset. We
write (S,R) when we want to specify the relation R.
• EXAMPLE 1
• (a) Let S be any collection of sets. The relation
⊆ of set inclusion is a partial ordering of S.
Specifically, A ⊆ A for any set A; if A ⊆ B and B
⊆ A then A = B; and if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C then A
⊆ C.

• (b) Consider the set N of positive integers. We

say “a divides b,” written a | b, if there exists
an integer c such that ac = b. For example, 2 |
4, 3 | 12, 7 | 21, and so on. This relation of
divisibility is a partial ordering of N.
HASSE DIAGRAMS OF PARTIALLY ORDERED SETS

• Let S be a partially ordered set, and suppose a,

b belong to S. We say that a is an immediate
predecessor of b, or that b is an immediate
successor of a, or that b is a cover of a, written
a << b
if a < b but no element in S lies between a and
b, that is, there exists no element c in S such
that a < c < b.
• Suppose S is a finite partially ordered set. Then
the order on S is completely known once we
know all pairs a, b in S such that a >> b, that is,
once we know the relation >> on S. This
follows from the fact that x < y if and only if x
>> y or there exist elements a1, a2, . . . , am in
S such that x >> a1 >> a2 >> ・ ・ ・ >>am >>
y
• The Hasse diagram of a finite partially ordered set
S is the directed graph whose vertices are the
elements of S and there is a directed edge from a
to b whenever a >> b in S. (Instead of drawing an
arrow from a to b, we sometimes place b higher
than a and draw a line between them. It is then
understood that movement upwards indicates
succession.) In the diagram thus created, there is a
directed edge from vertex x to vertex y if and only
if x >> y. Also, there can be no (directed) cycles in
the diagram of S since the order relation is
antisymmetric.
• The Hasse diagram of a poset S is a picture of
S; hence it is very useful in describing types of
elements in S. Sometimes we define a partially
ordered set by simply presenting its Hasse
diagram. We note that the Hasse diagram of a
poset S need not be connected.
Ex2: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 18, 24} be ordered
by the relation “x divides y.” The diagram of A is given
in the figure below
Ex3: Let B = {a, b, c, d, e}. The diagram
in the figure below defines a partial
order on B in the natural way. That is,
d ≤ b, d ≤ a, e ≤ c and so on.
• EX4: A partition of a positive integer m is a set of
positive integers whose sum is m. For instance,
there are seven partitions of m = 5 as follows:

 5, 3 − 2, 2 − 2 − 1, 1 − 1 − 1 − 1 − 1, 4 − 1, 3 − 1 − 1, 2 −
1−1−1

• We order the partitions of an integer m as follows.

A partition P1 precedes a partition P2 if the
integers in P1 can be added to obtain the integers
in P2 or, equivalently, if the integers in P1can be
further subdivided to obtain the integers in P2
• For example,
2 − 2 − 1 precedes 3 − 2
since 2 + 1 = 3.

• On the other hand, 3 − 1 − 1 and 2 − 2 − 1 are

non comparable.

• The figure on the next slide gives the Hasse

diagram of the partitions of m = 5.