Secondary School Curriculum &

Instruction (PGDT-413)
By : Temesgen L(PhD)
Part I: Curriculum Component

Unit One:
Introductory Remarks on
Curriculum
1.1. The Concept, Scope and
Types of Curriculum
 Activity ( First try individually and then
discuss in pair 7’)
1/ What is curriculum to you? Define in your own words?
2/ Have you defined curriculum in the same way with your
friend? Why?
3/Why do you need to study about curriculum as a teacher?
4/ What do you think is the scope of Curriculum?
5/ Is there relationship between curriculum and
instruction? How/why?
6/ Explain the types of Curriculum that you know?
7/ Is there relationship between curriculum and a teacher?
How/Why?
 The Concept of Curriculum
Curriculum
 Latin root of the word "currere", which means, "to
run" as in to run a race course.
 the course / path that students have to run to finish
the "race".
 all the activities which students need to do if they are
to finish a program of study and achieve the intended
learning goals.

5
 Broad definitions`
 A plan for action or a written document that includes strategies for
achieving desired goals or ends /Tyler, Taba/.
 A plan for providing sets of learning opportunities for persons to be
educated /Saylor/.
 An organized set of formal education and/or training intentions/ Pratt/.
 All experiences of the learners have under the guidance of school//
Dewey, Caswell/
 On going experiences of children under the guidance of the
school/Ragan/
 A program /the school/ offers to its students.
 What is taught both inside and outside of school directed by the
school.
 Everything that is planned by school personnel.
 A series of experiences undergone by learners in school.
 An individual learner experiences as a result of schooling.
 Specific Definitions
Curriculum refers to:

which is
a course of taught in
study. school.
a set of
subjects.
a set of
performanc
e objectives.
Curriculum
content.

a sequence of
courses.
a set of materials. a program of
studies.
 Definition Based on School Role

• Promoting students intellectual capacity.

Sub • The collection of subjects offered to students to train the
ject intellectual capacity.
Cen
ter

• Means to make students shape a new social order and

lead life in it (Planning to evaluation).
Experience
center

• Enacted between students and teacher, collaboration

Constructivist and reflection in a community of enquiry.
View
 
Thus curriculum:

 in a narrow sense is subjects taught/ an outline of

the course of study/ a sequences of course of study/
a plan for action.
 broadly all the experiences of learners, both in
and out school, that are directed by the
educational institution towards the achievement of
educational goals.
 a state document utilized to help students achieve
the objectives of the educational program (acquire
knowledge , form attitudes and develop skills).
 Why we Study about Curriculum?

As a teacher, we need to know what curriculum means in

order to:
– Relate education to the socio-economic, technological,
political and environmental demands of the society.
– Relate content or the body of knowledge to local
setting.
– Apply the most effective and relevant teaching and
learning methodologies and materials.
– Evaluate teaching and learning processes in education
system.
 The Scope of Curriculum
Curriculum scope refers to the knowledge of curriculum development,
planning and design.
Curriculum Development: concerned with how curriculum evolved,
implemented, evaluated and what various people, process, and
procedures are involved in the construction of the curriculum.
Curriculum Planning: is the process of making the curriculum
materials after identification of objectives, selection of contents,
learning experiences, instructional materials and evaluation
mechanism.
Curriculum Design: the way one conceptualizes a curriculum arrange
its major components to provide direction and guidance in
developing the curriculum.
 Relationship between
Curriculum and Instruction
Curriculum Instruction
Which is taught  means used to teach which
is taught
Conceived as “what”  conceived as the ‘how”
 A program, plan, content  methods, the teaching act,
learning experience implementation, presentation

In general:
Curriculum and instruction are sub-system of a larger system
called schooling or education.
 Types of Curriculum

Intended/official

Null Operational

Types of
Curriculum Learned
Hidden

Assessed
Supported
 Types of Curriculum……

1. Intended/official curriculum:
 as written and documented in syllabi, curriculum guides,
textbooks and other printed materials.
2. Operational/taught curriculum:
 What the teacher actually teaches and the learning for
which the student is held accountable, or curriculum in
use.
3. Learned curriculum:
 What students actually learn.
4. Assessed curriculum
 Which is tested or evaluated.
 Types of curriculum……..

5. Supported curriculum
 Those resources that support and help with the implementation of
the curriculum.
6. The hidden curriculum:
 the unplanned and unrecognized values that are taught and learned
through the process of education.
 lessons that schools teach children about appropriate roles and
behavior for people of different ages and sexes. It is generally non-
academic, but very important.
 is a vital necessity though it is unforeseen occurrence in the
school. E.g. home-economics, hygiene, respect, positive
relationship, flag ceremony, minor games, cultural norms, loyalty,
ethics, advisement, discipline, and school regulations.
 Con’t
7.The Null Curriculum
 subject matter that is not taught, and urged us to
consider carefully.
 Subject matters and/or units that are considered
important but non-existent in the current school
curricula.
E.g. HIV and AIDS, environmental sanitation, sex
education, and gender issue.
 Curriculum – Teachers Relationship

 Teachers and curriculum are closely related.

 On one hand, curricular documents provides teachers
with information for:
• planning lessons,
• organizing students’ and their activities,
• directing the instructional work and
• employing different instruments to measure the outcomes
and
• making sensible decisions.
 Con’t
On the other hand, teachers :
• translate curriculum into practice.
• investigate specific curricular weaknesses;
• develop plans for particular curriculum purposes;
• conduct curriculum research and experiments;
• evaluate the existing instructional program;
• play a vital role in the deve’tof a new curriculum
or revising the existing one, etc
 1.2. Foundations of Curriculum
Foundations of curriculum refers to:
 The “why” of experiences children have in the school.
 The values, traditions, forces and professional
understandings which determines what the school does.
 Basic forces that influence and shape the content and
organization of the curriculum.
 They are often referred to as the sources or determinants
of the curriculum.
 The most commonly accepted foundations of the
curriculum are:
Foundations of Curriculum………

Philosophical
Foundations

Sociological Foundations Psychological

foundations of Curriculum foundations

Historical
foundations
 1.2.1. Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

Philosophy is:
• Love of wisdom/ search for truth or the search for
knowledge.
• gives meaning to our decisions and actions.
• deals with the larger aspects of life, the problems and
prospects for living and
• determines, our educational decisions, choices and
alternatives.
 framework or base for organizing schools and classrooms.
 answer what schools are for, what subjects are of value,
how students learn, what method s and materials to use.
 Co’t

• Thus, the three main basic philosophical questions

include:
– What is real? Metaphysic
– What is truth? Epistemology
– What is of value? Axiology
 There are different philosophies but, all wants the same
thing of education, they wish:
• To improve the educational process
• To enhance learners’ achievement
• To produce better and more productive citizens, and
• To improve the life of the society.
Major Philosophies Influencing Curriculum

Major Philosophies

Realism/ Pragmatism/ Existentialism

Idealism
Naturalism Experimentalism
 1. Idealism
 One of the oldest.
 Proponent: Plato, Kant, Hegel, Froebel, Butler, etc.
 mind is central element of philosophy;
 Give primacy to idea. The idealist assumes that:
 truth exist separate and apart from individual /society he lives.
 Emphasizes moral and spiritual reality as chief explanation of the
world.
 Truth and values are seen as absolute, timeless and universal.
 The world of idea and mind are permanent, regular and orderly and it
represents a perfect order.
 Eternal ideas are unalterable and timeless.
 To know is to rethink the latent ideas that are already present in the
mind.
 The teacher’s task is to bring the latent knowledge to consciousness.

 Idealism……..
Education:
 Purpose to transmit cultural heritage.
 Eternal process of superior adjustment of the physical and mental
developed human being to God.
Curriculum:
 prefer the order and pattern of subject matter that relates ideas and
concepts to each other.
 Is hierarchal and it constitutes the cultural heritages of humankind.
 At the top of hierarchy the most general and abstract subjects like
philosophy and theology.
 Based on learned disciplines (liberal arts)
 Revolves around ideas drawn from the past.
 2. Realism
 View the world in terms of objects and matter.
 Realism means objects exist in real world separate and apart
from the human mind and perception.
 Proponents; Aristotle T.Aquinas, Pestalozzi, Broudy, etc.
 People come to know the world through their sense and their
reason.
 Everything is derived from nature and is subject to its law.
 Universe is matter in motion.
 The real world is the physical world.
 Reality and truth emanate from both science and art.
 Use inductive method of gathering data.
 Emphasizes cause-effect relationships in the physical world.
 Realism……..
Education:
 To induct the learner into culture.
 Society and its institutions must operate in ways that are
consistent to natural laws.
 School is social agency which transmits natural laws to learners.
Curriculum:
 Consists primarily the physical and social sciences that explain
the natural phenomena.
 Acquiring of subject matter/facts encouraged.
 Consists of organized, separate subject matter, content and
knowledge that classify objects.
 View subject matter experts as a sources of authority.
 3. Pragmatism/Experimentalism

Based on change, process and relativism.

Proponents: C. Darwin, J. Dewey, W. Kilpatrick, Bode, etc.
truth is based on one’s experiences; situational experiences
Considers knowledge as a process in which reality is constantly
changing.
Learning occurs as persons engage in problem solving.
Knowledge is considered a transaction between learner and
environment. Basic to this interaction is the notion of change.
Both the learner and environment are constantly changing as
are the experiences/interaction.
Hypothesis is used in seeking knowledge.
Both deductive and inductive methods are used.
 Pragmatism………
Education:
• a process of experiencing on the part of the learner.
• A means for reacting, controlling and directing experience.
• The goal of ed. is to aid the learner to solve his/her problems.
• Not regarded as preparation for life, rather it is considered to be an integral
part of life.
• The role of the teacher is facilitator.
• Is reconstruction and reorganization of experience.
• Learning takes place in an active way as learners, either individually or in
groups solves problems.
Curriculum:
 Emphasizes the interest of the learner than subject matter to organize
curriculum.
 The method is more important than the subject matter.
 Teaching is more exploratory than explanatory.
 4. Existentialism
 Stress individualism and personal self-fulfillment.
 Proponents: M.Greene, G.Kneller, Morris, etc.
 the world of existence, choice, and responsibility is primary.
 Personal choice is central the decision lead to personal self -definition.
Education:
• should stress individual responsibility and choice.
• is a process that originates within the self.
• The student is responsible for his/her own motivation and learning.
• The teacher’s task is to provide learning experiences that promotes
autonomy, interaction, and choice.
 The learners would choose the knowledge they wish to possess.
Curriculum :
• avoid systematic knowledge or structured disciplines.
 Major Educational Philosophies

Educational
Philosophies

Reconstructi
Perennialism Essentialism Progressivism
onism
 A. Perennialism
 Oldest and rooted in realism.
 Proponent R. Hutchins.
 Relies on past asserted by agreed-upon, universal knowledge and cherished
values of society.
 A plea for the permanency of knowledge.
 A view of the unchanging nature of the universe, human nature, truth,
knowledge, virtue, beauty, etc.
 The goal of education is to develop the natural person and to uncover
universal truth by training the intellect.
Curriculum: Subject centered-liberal arts.
The teacher: is viewed as an authority in the field whose knowledge
and expertise are unquestionable.
Teaching method: based on Socratic Method.
Student’s: mind as a sponge for absorbing knowledge.
 B. Essentialism
• Rooted in both idealism and realism.
• Proponents: Bagley, Bestor, Rickover,etc.
• School curriculum should be geared to fundamentals or
essentials.
Curriculum: Subject centered but concerned with the
contemporary scene.
Teacher’s role: is as an authority in the field.
• The back-to-the basics focus on reading, writing and
Mathematics.
• Stress on increasing time and improving the quality of
instruction, upgrading teachers and schools analyizing
education interms of inputs and outputs.
 C. Progressivism
• Rooted in pragmatism and considered as contemporary.
• Proponents: Follette, Roosevelt, etc.
• The skills and tools of learning include problem solving
and scientific inquiry.
• Emphasize on how to think not on what to think.
Curriculum: was interdisciplinary in nature and focused
on the child as the learner .
Teacher’s role: is guiding.
Methods: emphasized on activities and experiences rather
than competitive individualized lesson learning.
 D. Reconstructionism
• Rooted in pragmatism.
• Mainly served the individual child.
• Proponents: Fantini,
• Education for change and social reform.
• Emphasis on society centered education.
• Curriculum that emphasizes cultural pluralism,
• Focus on internationalism and futurisng education.
• Teacher serve as an agent of change and reform.
• Students are taught to appreciate life in a world of many
nations.
• Curriculum has to be changed with the society.
• Learning is active.
3. Psychological Foundation of
Curriculum
 Major Theories of Learning as Foundations of Curriculum

1/ Mental discipline
 Known as faculty psychology.
 Mind was made up of series of faculties each of which
was related to a particular function or ability of the
mind.
Learning:
 exercising various faculties(e.g.memory,muscles,etc)
Curriculum:
 content was often chosen on the basis of how well it will
discipline and exercise the mind rather than its value in
the life of the student.
 2. Connectionism

Connectionism:
 is a theory of learning based on the connection of various elements of the nervous system
in causing behavior.
Learning:
 Was the process of formulating the neural passages or connections. Once these
connections have been established, behavior may be repeated under similar conditions
indicating that learning has occurred.
 E.Thorndike three laws
a/ The law of effect:
 Effect either strengthen or weaken connection.
b/The law of readiness:
 The tendency of the physiological neurons to operate.
c/ The law of exercise:
 Repeating or exercise strengthens connection and v-versa.
Curriculum: demand drill and repetitions.
 Experiences are selected on the basis of their securing a satisfying reaction from the
learner.
 3. Behaviorism
• Behavior was dealt with and explained in terms of observable
reactions.
• Most of their experiments dealt with the conditioned response.
Learning:
 explained as a conditioned response. Stimulus-Response
 Occurs when a particular response is desired and a stimulus is
found to produce it.
 There is much concern for reinforcement, association and habit
formation.
Curriculum:
 Drill remained a prominent method of teaching and experiences
selected were such as to produce conditioned responses.
 4. Gestalt
 Pattern which is important.
 Understanding is based upon insight.
Learning:
 is the organization of parts into meaningful whole.
 A learning situation is taken as a problem situation seeking solutions
by which the learner develops insight.
Curriculum:
 Offers the learner an opportunity to discover processes and
relationships.
 Emphasis is placed upon perceiving a whole in order to understand
the importance of a specific.
 Generalities and principles are emphasized in preference to isolated
facts and meaningless drill.
3. Sociological Foundation of Curriculum

 refers to concepts and theories of the way that groups

manifest themselves in their culture.
 analyses the relationships of individuals, groups and
institutions and their `contribution to the process and growth
of the educational system as well as established practices in
the school system.
 curriculum designer is actually dealing with cultural value,
societal needs and the learners’ background.
Thus, cultures affect and shape the schools and their
curricula. Likewise, schools influence the cultures of the
people that the school serve.
4. Historical Foundations of Curriculum
 refers to those influence on the curriculum that are derived from the developments
in the past influencing the present.
 Form the basis for decision making and systematic growth of the educational
system.
In the prehistoric times:
 the informal type of education focused on transmitting the cultural heritage.
The Egyptians: had a form of writings, drawings and used phonetics.
The Greeks: had schools designed to serve the public good in Athens and Sparta.
The Romans: Upgraded elementary to secondary schools.
The Early Christian education:
 added philosophy and theology to earlier seven Liberal Arts .
During Renaissance:
The curriculum was based on the study of man and scientific thinking refocused.
The Scientific Sprit:
 Had view that if human kind followed reason and used the scientific method and
natural laws continued progress in this planet is possible.
 Unit Two
Curriculum Development Process and Models
 2.1.Definition of Curriculum Development,
Curriculum Design and Curriculum
Planning
Curriculum Development
 is more comprehensive term.
 It includes planning, implementation, and evaluation.
Curriculum Planning
 is a preliminary phase of curriculum development when the
curriculum workers make discussions and take actions to
establish the plan that teachers and students will carryout.
 It is the thinking and design phase.
Curriculum Design
 Refers to the way we conceptualize the curriculum and arrange
its major components to provide direction and guidance as we
develop the curriculum.
2.2.Curriculum Development Models:
Types and their Assumptions
 1) The objective / Ends-Means / Model

 Also known as rational, classical or technical-scientific model.

 Emphasizes fixed sequence starting from objective.
 Objective serve as a basis for devising subsequent elements.
 The two principal proponents of this model are Ralph Tyler
and Hilda Taba.
a/ The Tyler Model four basic principles:
Suggest those involved in curriculum inquiry must try to define:
1. Purposes of the school (Objectives),
2. Educational experiences related to the purposes,
3.Organiztion of these experiences and
4. Evaluation of the purposes.
 Tyler’s Model
Setting Objectives
(Sources-Society, Learners & Subject Matter)
Screening (Philosophical &Psychological)

Selection of Learning Experiences

Organization of Learning Experiences

Evaluation
 The Taba Model: Grass root Rational
• Suggest those who teach the curriculum should participate in
developing it.
• The users of the program should design the curriculum.
• Advocate inductive and bottom-up approach in curriculum
development.
• Noted the following seven steps to the model:
1. Diagnosis of needs
2. Formulation of objectives
3. Selection of contents
4. Organization of content
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Organization of learning` activities
7. Evaluation and means of evaluation
 The Wheeler Model

• Converted Tyler’s original ideas into cyclic form and evaluation

should take place at every stage.
• The first step is the statement of aims, goals and objectives.
A. Ultimate goals
• Are the expected outcomes expressed as patterns of categories
of behavior over time.
B. Mediate goals
• Expected behavior at given stage over ed. time.
C. Proximate goals
• Goals for shorter periods.
D. Specific objectives
• Goals for specific period.
 The Wheeler Model
1.Aims, goals
& objectives

2.Selection of
5. Evaluation learning
experience

4.Organization
and integration 3.Selection of
of learning content
experiences
 2. The Process /Means-Ends/ Model
• Developed by L. Stenhouse
• Specify content and principles of procedures than objectives.
• The end product is not specified before hand in terms of
behavior.
• Behavioral objectives are absent.
• More concerned with teaching content.
Steps involved:
 Selection of content
 Selection of principle or procedure (learning strategies)
 Developing teaching methods and materials
 Evaluating by criteria inherent in the field of knowledge
 3.Situation Analysis /Process-Product/
School-Based Model
This model is:
 the latest/recent model of curriculum development.
 shares the idea of process model, but emphasizes meeting standards .
 puts curriculum development firmly within a contextual framework.
 teachers modify and transform learners’ experiences in the curriculum.
 curriculum development should be based on the context where learning is
taking place including national, societal and institutional.
 Assumes institution-based curriculum development is one of the most effective
ways of promoting genuine change at institutional level .
 both close-ended and open-ended evaluations are very common.
 The stages in this model are:
1. Situation analysis
2. Goal Formulation 4. Interpretation and Implementation
3. Program building 5. Monitoring, Assessment, Feedback and Reconstruction
 4. A Hybrid Model

A hybrid model that features elements of the objective, process and situation
analysis models is made up of the following steps:
1. Diagnosis of needs /Need assessment/Situation analysis/
2. Formulation/Identifications of objectives
3. Selection of curriculum contents
4. The selection of learning experiences
5. Organization of curricular experiences (Contents and learning experiences)
6. Pilot testing
7. Revising and consolidating
8. Approval governing council
9. Use of the approved curriculum
10. Periodic review
 2.3.Curriculum Planning Process

2.3.1. Conducting Need Assessment /Situational Analysis /

Diagnosis of Needs/

 Needs are the gaps between the current state and desired
changes.
Whose needs to be assessed?
1.The need of the society: refers to assessing the culture, value,
attitudes and norms, etc.
2.The needs of the learner: social , cultural , language and
perception , cognitive, physical,
3. The needs of the subject matter: knowledge relevant to
contemporary life, to the education of the intended learner and
the society.
 Con’t
Basic considerations in needs assessment: should
be a continuing activity that takes place:
a) Before specification of curricular goal and
objectives.
b) After identification of curricular goals and
objectives.
c) After evaluation of instruction, and
d) After evaluation of the curriculum.
 Con’t
Instrument of Data Collection for Need Assessment
include:
• Questionnaires,
• Interview,
• Public Hearings,
• Observation,
• Document Analysis, etc.
2.3.2. Formulation of educational aims, goals, and objectives

Educational Philosophy

Educational Aims

Educational Goals

General Objectives

Specific Objectives
2.3.2. Formulation of educational aims, goals, and objectives

1. Educational Aims
• give general direction to education universally throughout
the country.
• visionary statements that indicate where to go .
• answer the question “why to educate/train?”
• achieved in long time and can be divided in to several goals.
 Ends striven for education in general.
 Stated at national level. Applied to the system.
 They are of long term. E.g. dev’t of democratic attitude.
 Very broad statements of purposes of education.
 Equated with ends, functions, and purposes..
 Con’t
2. Educational Goals
 Results from learning over the years.
 Stated at institutional level and across subject matters of
schooling.
 of medium terms.
 defined as general program expectations.
3. Formulating educational objectives
 Indicate in more specific terms the outcomes.
 Intended educational consequences of a particular course
/unit.
 Statement of intent about anticipated changes in learner
at classroom level
 Criteria for setting Objectives
The following points must be kept into consideration for this :-
Matching – objectives should be related to the broad goals of
education from which they are derived.
Worth – it relates to weather attaining an objective has value
in the life of the student in the present or future.
Wording – he statements of the objectives should be worded
properly.
Appropriateness – all objects should be derived from and
cater to the needs and interests of the students.
Logical grouping – the objectives should be properly
organized in a coherent manner.
Revision – the objectives needs periodic revision because the
needs, knowledge change at a fast pace.
 2.3.3. Selection of contents and
Learning Experiences

Curriculum experiences consists of two components:

Contents and learning experiences.
What is content?
Curriculum content are:
 elements of information to be learned by students:
concepts, facts, principles, rules, etc.
 The various knowledge, values and skills that we learn
from our day to day life constitute content.
 cont…
Types of content
There are two types of content: Descriptive and
Normative.
I. Descriptive content
• This refers to facts and principles.
• This can be reported in statements about things that can
be perceived directly or in principle
• Descriptive facts consists of factual statements about
what happened, when and where it happened and who
was involved.
• Descriptive principles are laws, rules and theories such as
scientific laws, and principles. 62
cont…
• Question such as:
– What happened?
– When and where did it happen?
– Who was involved in it? can be answered only
by factual statements.
• Question such as:
– Why did it happen?
– What would cause it to happen? etc requires
explanations from theories and general
ideas using descriptive principles. 63
cont…
II. Normative content
• This refers to the rules of the game, norms or standards
by which individuals make moral choices/judgments.
• It represents the value standard people have built up
through generations.
• It is drawn from the wisdom of the people.
• Questions like:
• should it have happened?
• Should it happen again?
• Was its occurrence good or bad?
• Was it beautiful? etc requires answer from moral and
esthetic values.
64
 Con’t
Criteria for content selection
Utility: Usefulness of the content
Relevance to life : the content should be functional to the life of the
learner .
Validity : the authenticity or actual contribution of the content to
stated objectives.
Learnability: optimal placement and appropriate organization and
sequencing of the content.
Feasibility: the content in the light of the time and resources
available.
Comprehensiveness: Content should have corresponding objectives.
Suitability/Appropriateness: content should be to the level of the
learner.
Interest- the content should suit the personality and intellectual
capabilities of the students
 Selection of learning experiences

Learning experiences refers to :

• the mental operational of students in the teaching
learning process.
• learning activities which shape the learner’s orientation
to the content and ultimately their understanding of it.
• It involves the instructional component of the
curriculum i.e. human interaction b/n teacher and
student and between students themselves in a way that
are designed to achieve the goals of the school.
• LE and content are inseparable elements of the
curriculum
 Con’t
Principles of selecting learning experiences
1. Provision of experiences that give students opportunities
to practice the kind of behavior implied by the objective.
2. Provision of experiences that give students satisfactions
from carrying on the kind of behavior implied by the
objective.
3. Matching the reactions desired in the experience to be
within the range of possibility for the students involved(it
should be appropriate with students present attainment,
predisposition, etc).
4. Provision of many particular experiences that can be used
to attain the same educational objectives
5. Searching for particular learning experiences that bring
about several outcomes
 2.3.4. Organization of content & learning
experience

The meaning of organization

What is organization in curriculum?

• Organization in curriculum refers to the systematic

arrangement of the various components (content and
learning experience) of the curriculum.
 Approaches to curriculum organization
• There are different approaches to curriculum
organization which originated from philosophical
thoughts. Some of these include:
1. Subject centered/academic design
2. Social efficiency design
3. Learner center design
4. Problem centered design.
Let’s see these designs one by one
 cont…
1. Subject centered/academic design
• It focuses on the mastery of the subject matter.
• It is most popular and widely used.
• It pays little attention to the psychological organization of
the curriculum i.e. to the need, interest, and problem of the
learners.
• It is the most classified of all curriculum designs.
• Some of these include:
A. Subject design
B. Discipline design
C. Broad field design
 cont…
2. The social efficiency design.
• Is rooted up on technical and scientific approach
• Consists of model, plan and step by step procedure
for formulating curriculum.
• It borrowed the concept of efficiency from business
and industries and require efficiencies in social
activities.
• It define efficiency as the performance of the adult
activities with minimum misunderstanding, effort,
time and energy with maximum effectiveness and
satisfactions.
 cont…
3. Learner centered design
• Here the curriculum is designed according to
the need and interest of the learners.
4. Problem centered Design
• The curriculum is designed around problems
of living.
• It bases on the perceived realities of
institutions or groups.
 cont…
Organization of Contents and Learning Experience
Considerations
• Organization of contents and learning experience
involves:
1. The consideration of available knowledge about the
nature of knowledge, child growth and development,
theories of learning, etc.
2. Examining of two types of relationships of content and
learning experience i.e.
I. Relationship overtime(vertical relationship)
II. Relationship across subjects (horizontal r/s)
 cont…
Criteria
• There are 4 major criteria
1. continuity:
• It refers to the vertical recurrence or reappearance of major
curr elements such as concepts, facts, principles, values,
attitudes, skills, etc.
• It is repetition of subjects at different grade levels.
2. Sequencing:
• It refers to putting the content and materials in to some sort
of order of succession.
• Two types of sequencing:
i) Logical sequencing: arranging content.
 cont…
3. Integration:
• It is the horizontal relationship of the curr. Across
different subjects
4. scope:
• It deals with the coverage of school program.
• Divided in to two:
1. The scope of different subject given at the
school
2. The scope of different topics, or units within a
single subject.
 Curriculum Organization

Organization

Horizontal Vertical

Integratio
Scope Continuity Sequence
n
 2.3.5. Developing curriculum packages

• After we organized the curriculum objects (i.e. content

and learning experience) we are going to develop or
prepare curriculum packages.
• These refers to the preparation of or writing of syllabi,
textbooks, teachers’ guides, etc
Trying out the curriculum in sample schools
• This refers implementing the curriculum in selected or
pilot schools for further improvement .
Orientation to personnel including teachers
• Before we actually go to the implementation step we
have to give orientation for the parties taking the major
responsibility in the implementation process.
2.3.6. Curriculum Implementation, Evaluation And Change

Curriculum Implementation
The concept, nature & process of curr. implementation
• It is the effort made to put into practice the planned or
the written curriculum.
• It is the actual use of the curriculum.
• The classroom teachers play a pivotal role in
implementing the curriculum and in directing the
students’ learning towards the attainment of the
objectives of the curriculum.
 Curriculum Implementation Approaches

• Successful implementation of the Curriculum needs to

consider the following dimensions.
I, Planning
• To address the needs, changes necessary and resources
required for carrying out intended actions, curriculum has
to be planned carefully.
• Effective planning must be related to a desired and
identifiable change that is to be implemented.
• Planning focuses on three major factors: people,
programs and organizations.
 cont…

II, Communication
• Frequent discussion about the new program among
teachers, directors and curriculum workers is an
important aspect of successful implementation.
III, Cooperation
• The process of curriculum implementation requires the
full-participation of all persons who are primarily
concerned with it to bring the desired change.
cont…
• Cooperation is needed in practicing the new
ideas and developing new programs.
• That is to say, the more teachers actively
participate in curriculum development and
implementation, the better the implementation
process would be.
IV Support
• Curriculum developers are required to give
support in terms of both money and materials for
their recommended programs to facilitate their
rapid implementation.
Curriculum of Implementation Models

Implementation

Mutual
Fidelity Enactment
adaptation
 Con’t

• It is a curriculum implementation
model that requires the curriculum
to be implemented without any
modification as it is, i.e., as it is
1.Fidel prescribed by the curriculum
ity expert.
Perspe • The teacher has no right to make
any form of change in all aspects
ctive of the curriculum.
 Con’t

• Curriculum knowledge is created by outside

experts but there is a room for teachers to adapt to
school or classroom context.
• Negotiation and flexibility exist b/n designers and
practitioners.
2. • Both the external sources of knowledge from the
teacher is also respected.
Mutu • Curriculum change is viewed as more unpredictable
al less linear process as more active consumer at end.
• The role of the teacher becomes more active in
Adap shaping the curriculum to meet the demands of the
local context.
tation
 Con’t

• Curriculum is viewed as educational experiences

jointly created by students and teachers.
• The externally created curriculum is seen as a tool to
be used by students and teachers in creating their
own curriculum.
• Curriculum knowledge is seen as something
constructed by individual learner
• Change is seen as a personal dev’t process both for
Curric teachers and students.
ulum • The role of the teacher is a curriculum developer who
enactm together with the student create knowledge and
ent continuous growth for both
• Teachers are the most active participants in curriculum
creation.
 Factors Affecting Curriculum Implementation

• There are four different characteristics or

factors affecting the implementation of
curriculum. These are:
1. characteristics related to the change itself;
2. characteristic at the school district level;
3. characteristics at the school level; and
4. characteristics external to the local system.
 1. Characteristics Related To The Change Itself

• The characteristics related to the change itself include

need and relevance, clarity, complexity, quality and
practicality of the change; i.e., the new programme or
curriculum.
• The change we planned to introduce should have
something significant to the society.
• The presence of new knowledge is not sufficient for
change, people must recognize a need for change and
there has to be clarity on the importance and practicality
of the planned change.
 2. Characteristics At The School District Level

• These include the

History of innovative attempts,
The adaptation process,
Support and involvement of the administration,
Staff development and participation and
Community characteristics.
• In the Ethiopian context, these are the factors related
to the lower levels of the organizational structure;
i.e., Woreda and Kebele educational bureaus.
 3. Characteristics At The School Level
• These are related to the situations at the school
level.
• These are the most influential factors.
• B/c, the school env’t is the ideal place where real &
practical implementation of the curr. is carried out.
• Some of these factors include:
– characteristics and orientation of principals and teachers
– the relationship between the school community,
– availability of resources, and
– professional & psychological readiness (school
personnel)
 4. External Environment Factors

• These are related to the role of the gov’t and

external assistance.
• The role of the gov’t and other external bodies
such as NGOs and international organizations is very
important for effective implementation of school
curriculum.
• They are important in providing (financial, material,
moral, and human) and in give training for those
who implement the curriculum.
 2.3.7. Curriculum Evaluation
The Meaning Of Curriculum Evaluation
• The term curriculum evaluation has been defined by different scholars
as follows.
• It is the provision of evidence on the basis of which decision could be
taken about the feasibility, effectiveness and educational value of
curriculum (Cooper. 1976).
• It is the assessment of learning activities within a specific instructional
area for the purpose of determining the validity of objectives,
relevancy and sequence of content, and achievement of specified
goals: leads to decisions associated with planning, programming,
implementing, and recycling program activities(Good,1973).
• It is the process of judging the suitability of the actual behavior being
shown by the learners.
 Con’t
Purposes of curriculum evaluation:
• to identify the weaknesses and strengths of the
program.
• to improve the curriculum development process;
• to determine the effectiveness of the curriculum
and the returns on finance allocated.
• To make a periodic check on the effectiveness of
the program.
• To provide basic information for effective
guidance of individual students
 Types of curriculum evaluation
• As to several scholars, there are two types of curriculum
evaluation.
1. Formative Evaluation
• Formative evaluation occurs throughout the whole planning activity.
• It provides valuable, powerful and new tool for helping curriculum
plan reach rational and valid decisions.
• Formative evaluation is undertaken to improve the existing
programme.
• It is directed towards providing information on learner performance at
one or more point during the learning process.
• Appropriate assessment activities would be needed to determine the
effectiveness of students’ progress at particular points in that process
and provide them with feedback on their performance.
 cont…
2. Summative Evaluation
• This is concerned with evaluating the overall program after
it is in operation.
• It is what could be termed ‘final’ evaluation, occurring at
the end of the implementation stage and at selected times
after the program has been in operation.
• It often based on tests of all sorts, students reaction,
teachers’ view, parents reaction, employer ratings of
graduates, and reports from other stake holders.
• Such evaluation is meant to judge the quality and
effectiveness of the total program or curricula.

94
 cont…

• It is directed towards general assessments of the

degree to which the larger outcomes have been
attained over the entire course or some substantial
part of it.
• The purpose of summative evaluation is to know
things that should continue and those that are
ineffective; and to decide on the long term values of
curriculum offerings.
• Follow up studies are undertaken to indicate
whether desired objectives are being realized and
to reveal out short comings. 95
 Steps in curriculum Evaluation

Curriculum evaluation procedure followed the following nine

steps
1. Specify the objectives of the evaluation(what and why)
2. Choose an appropriate evaluation design (method)
3. Identify the sources of information/data (from whom and
where)
4. Construct instruments for data collection(questionnaire,
interview,…)
5. Select or develop strategies for data collection(how to
collect)
6. Conduct pilot scale evaluation
7. Conduct large scale evaluation
8. Analyze the data 96
 6.3.8. Curriculum Change
The concept
• Curriculum evaluation brings in to reality anticipated change.
• It is based on the results of curriculum evaluation that we are going
to change a part or all aspects of the curriculum.
• Curriculum change is any adjustment in the aspects of curriculum.
• This may include the change in philosophies, values, objectives,
organizational structures, materials, teaching strategies, student
experiences, and assessment and learning outcomes.
• It sometimes refers to general changes and directions in the
curriculum, and in other times very specifically to describe a
particular change.

97
 Con’t

 Any alteration in the aspect of the curriculum-

educational philosophy, values, objectives,
organizational structure, materials, teaching
strategies, assessment, etc.
 The process of curriculum change has three phases:
initiation, use and assessment.
Initiation: decisions taken in the construction of a
new or revised curriculum.
Use: implementing in relation to the intention.
Assessment: checking the degree of embedeness or
institutionalization.
 Change Typologies
(in nature and process)
• Those involved have equal power and function.
Pla • People identify and follow precise procedure
nne • Taken to be an ideal one.
d

• One group determine the goal excluding the other.

Coe • The group in control has the major power and works to
rcio maintain the unequal power balance.
n
• Mutual goal setting and fairly equal power
In distribution among groups take place.
ter • But those involved often lack of
ac deliberateness.
tio
n
 Change according to complexities

1.Substitution: one element is substituted for another. E.g. the substituting a

new textbook for an old one.
2.Alteration: minor change and thus be readily adopted. E.g. use of graphing
calculator in mathematics teaching.
3. Perturbations: changes that are disruptive but teachers adjust to them
within a fairly short time. E.g. the assistant principal changes the timetable
.
4. Restructuring: changes that lead to a modification of the whole school
system. E.g. the introduction of an integrated curriculum requiring team
teaching.
5. Value Orientation: shifts in the fundamental value orientations of school
personnel. E.g. if the new teachers who join the school place more
emphasis on personal growth of students than academic performance, then
the value orientations or fundamental philosophies of the school changes.
Factors Affecting Change or Resistance to Curriculum Change

Their resistance to change can be attributed to various factors.

• Inertia: Wanting to keep things as they are is often mixed with believing that
things do not need to be changed or that change being suggested is unwise and
will thus be unproductive in meeting the objectives of the school.
• Insecurity: People feel insecure about the uncertainty of things to happen.
Those who are comfortable with the present are resistant to change .
• Rapidity of change: people resist change anticipating another change in
curriculum soon.
• Lack of knowledge: sometime people resist innovation and change either they
do not know about the innovation at all or they have little information about it.
• Lack of support: Lack of financial or time support is given to the effort. A
project for which no monies are budgeted is rarely designed to be
implemented.
Mechanisms for Improving/Increasing Receptivity to Change

• Curriculum activity must be cooperative:

 Creating sense of ownership is achieved by involving people directly and
indirectly with the major aspect of change.
• Considering the feelings, worries and concerns of people:
 Resistance to any new idea is often natural.
 Curriculum leaders should anticipate it, and should prepare procedures for
dealing with it.
• Making the people recognize that innovations are subject to change:
 A new curriculum is presented as a response to a particular time and context.
 Change is a constant, and people need to realize that all programs will be
constantly reviewed to determine if they should be continued.
• Proper timing is a key to increasing peoples’ receptivity to an innovation:
 program addressing the need is likely to meet with success and acceptance.
 Unit Three
Trends of Curriculum Development in Ethiopia
 2.4.1. Historical Overview of Education in Ethiopia
Traditional Education in Ethiopia
 Ethiopia has had its own long and rich educational
traditions.
 The educational traditions might be viewed as indigenous
and religious ones.
a. Indigenous education is :
• essentially a part of life of the society and community
oriented .
• has been offered by all ethnic and linguistic groups and
remains an important transmitter of cultural identities
from one generation to the next.
 Con’t
• aims at inculcating in children the attitudes and skills
appropriate for male and female social roles.
• emphasized the duties and privileges derived from cultural
values.
• responds to the concrete problems of local communities.
• used methods such as oral instruction, symbols, stories,
proverbs, singing, imitation, dramatizing, observing,
repeating, memorizing and participation.
 In general, indigenous education has played invaluable roles
in preparing the young generation for their future role in
Ethiopian society.
 Religious Education in Ethiopia
1.The Ethiopian Church Education

 traced it back to the 4th century, when Christianity was introduced into the
country.
• The main purpose was to preserve all aspects of Christian values and culture.
• aimed to prepare young men for the service of church such as priests, monks,
deacons etc.
• had served as the main sources of civil servants such as judges, governors,
scribes, treasures and general administrators.
• has four stages or levels. These levels/ stages are:
 The school of reading (”Fidel/Nebab Bet”/
 The school of church Music (“Zema Bet”)
 The school of poetry (“Kene Bet”)
 The school of books (“Metshaf Bet”).
 Stage 1. The School of Reading /”Nebab/ Fidel Bet”/

 aims at enabling the learner master the Geez /Amharic letters, read different religious
texts and serve the church as “deacons”.
 the content of education include the Geez /Amharic alphabet/, and letters.
• Learning by heart or memorization is a typical method of learning.
Stage 2.The School of Church Music /”Zema Bet”/
 aims at producing persons who are well versed and specialized in the church music and
who can serve the church.
 the content includes religious songs, the arts of church dancing, drum-beating, etc.
 Rote memorization is the dominant method of learning at this level.
3. The School of Poetry /”Kene Bet”/
• aims at preparing persons who are well specialized in “kene” and serve the church.
• students are introduced to “Geez” vocabularies, grammar, and structure of language
and critics of the “kene” composition of others.
• Method of learning through discussion and argument become dominant.
Stage 4: The School of Books /”Metshaf Bet”/

• aimed at producing highly educated religious persons

who are able to teach at higher level of church educat.
• the content includes specialization in one, two, three or
four of the following areas. These are the:
Old Testament, the New Testament, Church Dogma,
Philosophy and Astronomy.
• Dogmatist method is encouraged in which reading and
translating without adding or dropping any thing to it.
• Generally speaking, Ethiopian Orthodox Church
education had a virtual monopoly on education up to
the end of 19th century.
• It had been strongly opposed the introduction of
modern education and scientific thinking of the
learners.
 2. Islamic Education in Ethiopia

1.The Mejilis /Tehaji Quran School: known as the school of reading the Quran.
• aims at enabling the learners master the Arabic letters and read the Quran.
• The contents of education comprise mastering Arabic letters / memorize prayers, etc.
• Learning by heart or rote memorization is the main method of learning.
2. The Fiqh School
• aimed at familiarizing the students with the basic principles of Muslim religion.
• The contents of education consists of learning about Muslim laws, the belief in Allah and
Quran, prayers, fasting, going to Mecca or Medina and giving alms to the poor.
3. The Nahwi School: known as the school of Arabic Grammar.
• students learn the Arabic vocabularies, grammar or structure.
• Thus, students can understand what they learn.
4. The Quran Tasfir School: students translate the Quran into vernaculars, comment on what
they have read like their teachers without adding or dropping any idea to it.
• aim to prepare persons who are highly educated and can preach the Muslim religion on
the basis of the Quran.
• Generally speaking, it has also negative influence on modern education and scientific
thinking of the learners.
 3.2: Modern Education in Ethiopia

The objective conditions that necessitated modern education in Ethiopia:

1.The formation of centralized government with its capital at Addis Ababa
2. The diplomatic relation established between Ethiopia and western countries,
3. The construction of Franco-Ethiopian railway, that linked the country with outside world.
4. The development of modern means of communication such as telephone and postal
services and
5. The arrival of foreign missionaries.
 Thus, modern education was officially commenced in 1908 with the opening of Menelik
II School in Addis Ababa.
 The historical dev’t of modern education can be divided it into six periods. These were:
– The Period between 1908 – 1935
– The Period between 1936 – 1941
– The Period between 1942 – 1950
– The period between 1951-1974
– The Period between 1975 – 1991 and
– The Period from 1991- to date.
 History of Modern Education………..
1. The Period between 1908 – 1935
/ The Foundation Period/

 The first gov’t school Menelik II School was opened in 1908.

 Its existence was justified on purely political grounds.
 the first teachers were from Egypt.
 Menelik II School was resembled a language institute rather than a proper school, for
French, English, Italian and Arabic were the main subjects taught in this school.
 There was no age limit for admission, but a prior knowledge of Amharic was needed.
 The second modern government school, Teferi Mekonnen School was opened in 1925.
 It was a French-Oriented school because:
• There were successions of French school directors.
• The teachers were from French and French speaking Lebanon.
• The medium of instruction was mainly French.
• The final examination for those students who completed the elementary school was from
France. For further education the students used to go France.
• The curriculum and text books were imported from France.
• in 1930 the ministry of Education and Fine Arts was established.
• in 1931 the first Girls’ School i.e.; the “Menen” Girls’ School was opened .
• in 1934, a teacher training school was founded in Addis Ababa.
 II. The Period Between 1936 – 1941

During this period:

 Italian occupation (1936 – 41) seriously disrupted the educational system that
had just begun to emerge.
 Government schools were either closed down or were requisitioned for
military purposes, training centers and medical centers.
 Teachers and students were dispersed.
 A high percentage of pre-war educated Ethiopians were killed.
 But after 1936, for political indoctrination, Teferi Mekonnen School and other
Italian oriented schools (1 – 4 grades) were opened.
 In these schools the Italian language (using an interpreter) and the main local
nationality languages such as Amharic, Oromigna, Tigirigna, Harari, Sidama,
Somali, Arabic (in Muslim areas), etc were used as medium of instruction.
 But eventually after five years of struggle the Italian left Ethiopia in 1941.
 III. The Period Between 1942-1950
In this period:
The ministry of Education and Fine Arts reopened.
The first Post-War school was opened in 1942. Then:
Grant was obtained to construct school from Britain.
Several British teachers come to Ethiopia.
Teaching materials including textbooks and curriculum were imported from
Britain.
The medium of instruction became English.
The London Matriculation or GCE was introduced.
The Ethiopian students were sent to Britain for further education.
The structure of the educational system was a hybrid derived from Great
Britain, a three tire system 4-4-4 (four years primary, four years of Junior
secondary and four years of senior secondary education).
• Therefore, the number of elementary, secondary and Teacher training schools
and the number of students attending schools increased until 1950.
 IV. The Period Between 1951-1974

• The American began to shape edu. through Long Term Planning Committee in 1951.
• Point Four Program and Agency for Inte Deve. and Field Service Program given.
• Higher education was introduced to Ethiopia with the foundation of the University College of Addis
Ababa in 1951, Jimma and Ambo Agricultural Colleges.
• In 1952, Alemaya Agriculture College and public health college at Gondar.
• In 1961 these institutions of higher learning together formed the Haile Sellasie I Univ.
• Grade structure was changed from 4+4+4 to 6+2+4 (6 years primary, 2 years of Junior secondary
and four years of senior secondary education).
• Reform of curriculum at the primary level (1-6) was made.
• Amharic became the medium of instruction at this level.
• For the primary schools textbooks were prepared in Amharic and
• At the primary level of education all expatriate teachers were replaced by Ethiopian teachers. Thus,
this was the first step towards the Ethiopianization of Education in the country.
• School supervision began. Self-contained classroom was piloted.
• The Education Sector Review (ESR) was officially constituted in October 1971.
• ESR made the rural population the target of educational policy. This dissatisfied the urban
population. ESR failed and the crisis of the education sector aggravated the strikes until the
overthrow of the Imperial system in September 1974 .
 V. The Period Between 1975 – 1991

Ethiopia adopted the doctrine of Marxist-Leninism philosophy.

the educational system was restructured and organized along the ideology of the
communist Government.
Thus, the government issued three aims of education. These aims were:
1. Education for production,
2. Education for socialist consciousness and
3. Education for scientific Research.
This period was noted for the following:
1.The establishment of a teachers education committee to coordinate the curriculum
of the school at various levels.
2. Curriculum development was highly favored to expand socialist ideology
3. Well known with literacy campaign conducted established in 1979.
4. Attention given to kindergarten education
 Finally, the government was overthrown in May 1991 by Front (EPRDF).
 The Ethiopian Education and Training Policy (1994- to date)

Relevance
Equity

Efficiency Key Problems of

Education
System

Access Quality
 Implementation Strategies
(Based on 5 general and 15 specific objectives)

Curriculum
Educational
finance Educational
structure

Edu.organ. Key
and man’t Strategies
Educational
measurement
and
Language examination
and Teachers
education
Thank You