MODULE-2

SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY

COLLECTORS &
SOLAR CELLS
SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY
COLLECTORS
 Solar
 Solar energy needs to be collected and then concentrated
Collectors
 Residential panels collects below 60 degree celcius
 In large scale systems ,the temperature is about 70 to 80
degree celcius
 Solar Collectors are special kind of heat exchangers that
converts solar radiation energy into the internal energy of the
medium
 Absorbs incoming solar radiation ,converts it to heat and
then transfers this heat to a fluid flowing through the
collector
Applications of solar
 Solar water heaters
collectors
 Solar space heating systems
 Industrial process heat systems
 Solar desalination systems
 Solar thermal power generation
systems
Types of Solar
Collectors
 Flat Plate Collectors
Flat air plate collectors
Flat plate liquid collectors
 Concentrating Collectors
Stationary concentrating collectors
Tracking concentrating collectors
Flat Plate
 Referred to as the non concentrating type
Collectors
 Same area for intercepting and absorbing solar
radiation
 Flat Plate
Collector
 Dark flat Plate Absorber of Solar energy
 ---consists of thin absorber sheet of thermally stable materials such as
Al,Cu,steel,etc..
 Transparent Cover
 ---allows solar energy to pass through, but reduces heat losses
 ---reduces covection and radiation losses from
 absorber plate
 Heat Transport Fluid
 --air,water or antifreeze
 --To remove heat from absorber, fluid is usually circulated through
tubing to transfer heat from absorber to an insulating tank
 Heat Insulation Backing
 Insulated casing of glass or polycarbonate cover
 Flat Plate Air
Collector
 Air is the transport medium
 Air flows past the absorber by
natural covection or by blowers
 Less efficient than liquid type as
air does not conduct heat as easily
as liquid
 Flat Plate Liquid Collector
 Liquid is the heat transfer medium
 Liquid gets heated as it passes
through the tubes in or adjacent to
the plates
Collector
Configurations
 Flat Plate Collector
 ---Liquid Flat plate
 ---Air Flat plate
 Commonly used configurations are
1. Glazed flat Plate
2. Unglazed flat plate
3. Unglazed perforated flat plate
4. Back Pass flat plate
5. Batch Flat Plate
6. Solar Cooker
7. Evacuated Flat Plate
8. Concentrating
 Glazed flat plate collector
 Commonly available as liquid or
airbased collectors
 Suited for
moderate
temperature
 30-70 degree
Celcius
Used for
 ---Domestic and
commercial building
Unglazed Flat Plate
Collector
 Unglazed Flat Plate Collector
 Suited for low temperature applications below 30 degree
celcius
 Made of black plastic which can withstand ultraviolet rays
 Since no glazing is provided, it can absorb more heat
 But losses are also more
 They transfer heat so well to air so that they can even
capture heat from air even at night
 Used for heating outdoor pools, fish farming, pre
heating water for car washes, etc..
Unglazed Perforated Flat plate
collector
 Industrial grade siding or cladding having perforated small
holes at a pitch of 2-5 cm
 Mainly used for heating of buildings
 Air is passed through the collector before it is drawn into
the building to provide preheated fresh ventilation air
 Highly efficient and cost effective solution
Back Pass Solar
 A large solar absorber is used to heat air
Collector
 Collectors that are coated with glaze can also be used to
heat air for space heating
 Batch Flat plate collector
 Primarily used for residential water heating
 Earlier, black painted water tanks exposed to sun were
used
 Modern batch collectors have a glazing to concentrate solar
energy on tank surface
Flat Plate Collector with Flat
 Addition of a reflector increases solar yield on the collector
Reflectors
and the overall performance of the collector
 Enhancement in solar yield is about 44% in winter and
15% in summer
 Evacuated tube
 Conventional flat plate collectors will be less efficient during
collector
cloudy, or cold weather conditions
 Weather influences such as condensation and moisture will
deteriorate internal materials resulting in system failure
 Evacuated tube collector will operate in a different manner
which makes it suitable for adverse weather conditions as
well
 Can achieve high temperatures(75 to 180 degree Celcius)
 Suitable for industrial and commercial applications
 Highly efficient with low thermal losses
Solar Pool
Heating
Material Aspects of Solar
Collectors
Absorber
Coatings
Glazin
g
 Glazing for practical applications requires attention in the
following areas
 Cost
 Longevity
 Absorptivity
 Ability to withstand wind
conditions
 Glazing Materials
 Glass and Fiberglass
 Tedlar bonded to fiberglass
Insulating
Shell
Concentrating
 Uses reflectors to concentrate sunlight
collectors
 Reduces the size of absorber
 Reduce heat losses
 Increases efficiency at high temperature
 Used for high temperature applications such as steam
production for electricity
 Best suited for climates that have abundance of
clear sky days
Parabolic
reflector
Concentrating
 Stationary concentrating collectors
Collectors
 Operated in stationary mode
 Uses compound parabolic reflector & flat reflectors for
directing solar energy to an accompanying absorber
or operate through a wide acceptance angle
 Wide acceptance angle eliminates the need for sun
tracing
 Tracking Concentrating Collector
 Heliostats are tracking mirrors that reflect solar energy on to
 Concentrating
 Concave reflecting surface(shaped mirrors or lenses)
Collectors
 Focus the sun’s beam radiation to a smaller receiver area
 Provides high temperatures than flat plate collectors
 Mirror requires a clean ,smooth reflecting surface
 Selection of concentrating collector depends on the degree of
concentration and hence the temperature to be achieved
 Concentrating
 on a point-high to very high temperature
 on a line-moderate to high temperature
 Non focusing –low to moderate temperature
 Classification of concentrating Collectors
1. Based on means of concentration
2. Based on reflecting surfaces used: parabolic,
spherical ,or flat
3. Continuous or segmented
4. Based on the formation of the image: imaging or
non- imaging
5. Imaging concentrator may focus on a line or at a
point
6. On the basis of collector concentration degree or
operating temperature
 Compound parabolic
 Non Imaging Concentrating
Collectors
Collector
 To make an image, all the parallel
light rays should be concentrated at
a single point.
 Non-Imaging collectors are the
collectors which can’t make the
image (of sun).
 Compound Parabolic Collector
(CPC) is a well-known kind of non-
imaging collector. In CPC, parallel
light rays get focused at two points
instead of one
 The CPC is comprised of two
parabolic mirror segments with
different focal points as indicated
in figure.
 The focal point (B) of 1 st parabola
lies on 2 nd parabola, whereas the
focal point (A) of 2 nd parabola
lies on 1st parabola.
 The two parabolic surfaces are
symmetrical with respect to
reflection through the axis of
the CPC.
 The receiver tube place is AB.
 Parabolic tough solar collector
 U shaped reflectors
 Made by bending a sheet of
reflective material
 The troughs concentrate the sunlight onto the
receiver tube which is placed along the focal
line
 Receiver Tube is a metal black tube often
covered with glass tube to reduce heat losses
 They often use single axis or double axis
tracking
 50 to 400 degree Celcius is
achievable
 It can be used to produce steam for electricity
[Link] Solar Thermal
 Linear Fresnel Reflector(LFR) relies on an array of linear
Collectors
mirror strips that concentrate light onto a fixed
receiver mounted on a linear tower
  Uses flat or curved reflectors
 Cheaper compared to parabolic
 Structural
reflectorsRequirements are minimal as they are mounted
close to ground
 In order to avoid shading and blocking between
adjacent reflectors ,increased spacing is required
[Link] trough
 Biggest advantage of cylindrical trough collector is that it
Collectors
does not require tracking of sun
 For high rim angles there will be a focal plane instead of
focal line
 Design should be done with low rim angles
 [Link] Dish
Collectors
 Similar to a large satellite dish in appearance
 Mirror like reflectors and Absorber at focal
point
 Uses dual axis sun tracker
 Receiver absorbs solar
energy and converts it
to thermal energy in
the
circulating fluid
 This thermal energy can
be converted to
Advantages of dish
 Most efficient of all collector systems as they are always
collectors
pointing the sun
 Concentration ratio in the range of 500-2000,and thus
are highly efficient at thermal energy absorption and
power conversion systems
 Modular collector and receiver units that can function either
independently or as a part of a large system of dishes
 [Link]
 Mirror based system used to continuously reflect sunlight to a
ts receiver
central
 The collected solar energy is then converted to electrical energy
 Uses a two axis solar tracking mirror that directs solar energy to a
large absorber located on a tower
 Power Tower-A field of large mirrors that follow the suns path across
the sky and concentrate sunlight on to a receiver on top of a high tower
 A computer keeps the mirrors aligned so that the reflected rays are
always aimed at the receiver
 Temperature well above 1000 degree Celcius can be achieved
Working of Practical
 A practical solar heliostat is a mirror that makes movements
Heliostats
up or down and left or right to reflect sunlight onto a
fixed point
 The relative angular position of the receiver is input to
the computer
 The computer commands the heliostat motor drive system to
position the mirror exactly midway(angularly) between the
sun and thermal receiver
 Each heliostat is given a unique command
 Parabolic Dish Stirling Engine
 The major Components are
System
1. Solar dish Concentrator
2. Power Conversion Unit
3. Tracking System
 Power Conversion Unit
• Includes thermal receiver and the heat engine
• Thermal receiver absorbs the concentrated beam of solar energy, converts
it to heat and transfers the heat to heat engine
• Heat engine takes heat from the thermal receiver and uses it to
produce electricity
• Heat engines use fluids such as Hydrogen and Helium for their working
 The Engine Generator components
are A receiver to absorb the concentrated sunlight to heat
1.
the working fluid of the engine
2. The engine itself which converts the thermal
energy into
mechanical work
3. An alternator attached to generate electricity
4. A waste heat Exhaust System
5. A control system to match the engine operation with the
available solar energy
 Stirling Engine is the most common type used
 The parabolic dish heat engine system lacks thermal storage capabilities
 It can be hybridised to run on fossil fuels during periods without
sunshine
 Tracking System
Parabolic Dish Stirling Engine
System
Solar collector system in building Services

 Low operating cost, but high installation cost

 The most economical way is to have
 The solar system meets the energy demand while operating
at its full capacity
 Auxillary or back up system should be provide to carry
peak and unusual load
Solar Air Heating
 The major components are
Systems
1. Air handling Unit: a fan and two motor driven
dampers
2. Heat storage unit(rock bed)
3. Temperature Control System
4. Solar collectors
 3 modes of operation of damper as given below:

 Damper A & B open:

 Normal day time solar heating mode.
 The storage unit is bypassed.
 If the temperature is below a limit ass measured by sensor place in the top of
collector, auxillary furnace is turned on automatically
 Damper A open, B closed:

 This mode is used when solar energy is collected ,but no heating is required
 It gets collected in the rock bed(heat storage)
 Damper A closed , B open:
 Used for cloudy periods or at night

 The return air from the building is passed through rock bed, where it picks up
solar heat
 If temperature is insufficient, auxillary furnace is activated
 Solar Water Heating
Systems
Two main parts
1. Solar Collector
2. Storage tank
Types [Link]
Systems
 Rely on pumps to move the fluid between the collector
& storage tank
[Link] System
 Rely on Gravity and tendency for water to naturally
circulate as it is heated
Active solar water heating
 It can be for
systems
• Water heating
• Space Heating
 Parts of Water Heating
Systems
1. Collectors
2. Circulation System
3. Storage tank
4. Backup Heating System
Active solar air
 Uses the same components as the active solar water
heating
heating system along with a heating distribution system
 The heated water is used as the heat source for air heating
 The distribution system can be either of the three types
1. Air distribution System
2. Hydronic system with radiators
3. Hydronic system with in slab heat
 Air distribution system
 With a thermostat control
 Hydronic system with radiators
 The heated water is circulated in series with a boiler
into radiators located in living spaces
 Using solar heated water for boiler will reduce boiler’s
energy consumption
 Temperature upto 140 degree Celcius
 Hydronic system with in slab heating
 The heated water is pumped through distribution
piping within the floor of the home
 Temperatures upto 80 degree Celcius
Passive Solar Water Heating
System
 Types :
1. Batch System
2. Thermosiphon system
Applications of Solar water
Heaters
Solar
 Used for domestic as well as Industrial applications
Drying
 Advantages
 Hygienic and eco-friendly method
 Economical compared to dryers which uses
conventional fuels or electricity
 Limitations
 Comparatively Slow Process
 Intermittent availability of sun
 Upto 40 -50 degree Celcius
Solar
Cookers
 Basic principles are
1. Concentrating Sunlight
2. Converting light to heat
3. Trapping the heat
4. Green House effect
 Types
5. Box Type
6. Reflector Cookers
7. Solar steam and Convection Cooker
Solar Space
Cooling
Solar Space
Cooling
 Components
1. Absorber
2. Generator
3. Solar Collector
4. Condenser
5. Expansion
valve
6. Evaporator

Absorber
 Used to store mixture of ammonia and water in a fixed
proportion
 Function is to produce required aqua ammonia solution for the
generator using pumps
 Low pressure Ammonia vapour is absorbed by solution
of ammonia and water in the absorber
 Generator
 Collects thermal energy from sun and heats the strong
aqua ammonia solution to boiling point and converts it to
pure ammonia vapours of high pressure
 Solar Collectors
 Provides heat to the generator
 Condenser
 Used to condense the ammonia vapour to high
pressure liquid form
 Expansion valve
 Used to convert high pressure ammonia liquid to
low pressure and inputs it to the evaporator
 Evaporator
 Absorbs heat from the space to be cooled and converts
the low pressure liquid ammonia to low pressure vapour
Solar
Pond
 A pool of water that collects and also stores solar energy
 It has three different layers of water which differs by their
density
 Density difference is achieved by adding salt solutions of
different concentration
 Relatively cold top layer with low salt content
 Intermediate layer with salt gradient that maintains
the density gradient , acts as the thermal insulator
 Hot bottom layer (up to 100 degree Celcius ) with high
salt content
 Difference in densities prevent convection currents which
would have transferred heat to the surface of pond and
then to air
 Heat is trapped in the highly dense , salty bottom
layer which can be used
 Butlow solar to electricity conversion efficiency -
15%
 Advantages of solar pond
 Low cost per unit area of
 Inherent capacity for storage purposes
collection
 Great source for production of electricity
 Reduced Pollution
 Will help in saving conventional energy sources
 Since it is coupled with desalting units ,it can be used
for purification of water
 Solar Cells
 Solar cell

An energy conversion device that converts sunlight
to electricity by using photovoltaic effect
 Photovoltaic effect
Generation of electromotive force as a result of
absorption of ionizing radiation
Type of material :
electrical
Based on 
conductivity

Solar
Sunlight contains energy packets. called photons

 Photovoltaic
The amount of energy depends on the wavelength of solar
radiation

 When this sunlight falls on a semiconductor material

they impart enough energy to the electrons in the valence band

to jump to the conduction band

 These highly excited electrons when accelerated by

the built in potential creating an electromotive force

 Energy of a
 photon
Solar radiations reach the earth in the form of
electromagnetic waves

 
They contain packets of energy called photons

 The amount of energy depends on the wavelength of

the radiations
 Energy of

3.1eV
photon
Solar radiations available to us has energy in the range of 1.8eV to

 
As a result semiconductors are used to make the cells whose

band gap energy is in this range

 Insulators require energy >4.4eV

 Elements of Silicon Solar

Cells
 Substrate:
 Unpolished p type
wafer referred to as the p
region base material
 Thickness:180-300 վm
 Typical resistivity
values are 1-2 Ωcm
 Doping: 5x 1015
/[Link] –
 Emitter:

 Involves the doping of silicon
with
penta valent impurities like
phosphorous
 Doping is done by the process
of diffusion
 The silicon wafer is placed
in a phosphorous rich
environment at high
temperatures (850 degree
Celcius)
 The phosphorous diffuses in
 Electrical Contacts
 Essential to connect to the
external o lad
 Back Contact
 Metallic Conductor
completely covered in black
 Located on the
sideway rfom the
incoming sunlight
 Consists of
aluminium or
Molybdenum metal
 Front Contact
 Located on the
side facing the sunlight
 Anti Reflective Coating
 To reduce reflection and maximize
efficiency
 Helps to reduce reflection of desirable
wavelengths from the cell allowing more light
to reach the semiconductor film layer
 Silicon dioxide and Titanium dioxide is
commonly applied
 3-4% increase in efficiency is observed due
to the use of anti reflective coating
Components of solar
cell syste
m 
 Solar Cell
 Materials
Silicon


Mono crystalline or single crystal
Silicon
Sil Multi crystalline Silicon
 Poly crystalline Silicon
 Amorphous Silicon
 Thin Film
 A few micro meters thickness
Practical Solar
Cells


I-V Characteristics of solar cell 0.55 V

2A

VT= kT/q
Dark char eqn K=Boltzman’s constant
Illuminated char eqn T= Temperature in Kelvin
Q=charge of electrons
PhotoVoltaic (PV) Panels