ELECTRIC FILTER:

A frequency selective electric circuit that passes electric

signals of specified band of frequencies and attenuates the
signals of frequencies outside the band is called an Electric
filter.

Filters may be analog or digital

 They are also classified as Active and passive filters.

The Passive filter networks use only passive elements such as

resistors, inductors and capacitors.

On the other hand ,Active filter circuits use the active

elements such as op-amps, transistors along with resistors,
inductors and capacitors.
ADVANTAGES OF ACTIVE FILTERS:
1. All the elements along with op-amp can be used in the
integrated form. Hence there is reduction in size and
weight.
2. In large quantities ,the cost of the integrated circuit can
be much lower than its equivalent passive network. Due
to availability of modern ICs, variety of cheaper op-amps
are available.
3. The op-amp gain can be easily controlled in the closed
loop fashion hence active filter input signals is not
attenuated. Due to flexibility in gain and frequency
adjustments, the active filters can be easily tuned.
4. The op-amp has high input impedance and low out put
impedance hence the active filters using op-amp do not
cause loading of the source or load.
ADVANTAGES OF ACTIVE FILTERS:
5.The inductors are absent in the active filters hence the
modern active filters are more economical .

6.Active filters can be realized under number of class of

functions such as Butterworth ,Thomson,Chebyshev,Cauer
etc.

7.The response is improved as compared to passive filters

due to ready availability of high quality components.

8.The design procedure is simpler than that for the passive

filters.
The various types of filters used in practice which approximately
produce the ideal response are :
(i) Butterworth filters
(ii) Chebyshev filters
(iii) Cauer filters
Butterworth Approximation:
The filter in which denominator polynomial of its transfer function is a
Butterworth polynomial is called a Butterworth filter. The Butterworth
polynomials of various orders are given in the table (a) & table (b).

Butterworth polynomial

= ++ ------------------ ++
 FIRST ORDER LOW PASS BUTTERWORTH FILTER :

•The first order low pass butter-worth filter is realized by R-C circuit used
along with an op-amp, used in the non inverting configuration.

• The required pass band gain of the Butterworth filter will mainly
depends on the resistor values of ‘R1’ and ‘Rf’ and the cut off frequency
of the filter will depend on R and C elements in the above circuit.
 ANALYSIS OF THE CIRCUIT:
The impedance of the capacitor ‘C’ is given by the -jXC and the voltage
across the capacitor is given as,

As the op-amp is in the non-inverting configuration,

Then the

Where

= Gain of filter in pass band

and f = operating frequency
As the frequency increases than fH, the gain decreases at a rate of
20dB/decade. The rate 20 dB/decade means decrease of 20 dB in
gain per 10 times change in frequency. The same rate can be
expressed as 6 dB/octave i.e. decrease of 6 dB per two times change
in the frequency. The frequency fH is called cut off frequency, break
frequency, — 3dB frequency or corner frequency. The frequency
response is shown in the Fig.
 Design Steps

The design steps for the first order low pass Butterworth filter are
1) Choose the cut off frequency, fH.

2) Choose the capacitance C usually betwen 0.001 and 1 μF.

Generally, it is selected as 1 μF or less than that. For better
performance, mylar or tantalum capacitors are selected.

3) Now, for the RC circuit,

Hence, as fH and C are known, calculate the value of R.

4) The resistances Rf and R1 can be selected depending on the

required gain in the pass band.
Frequency Scaling
•Once the filter is designed, sometimes, it is necessary to
change the value of cut-off frequency fH. The method used to
change the original cut-off frequency fH to a new cut-off
frequency fH1 is called as frequency scaling.

To achieve such a frequency scaling, the standard value

capacitor C is selected first. The required cut-off frequency can
be achieved by calculating corresponding value of resistance R.
But to achieve frequency scaling a potentiometer is used as
shown in Fig. Thus, the resistance R is generally a potentiometer
with which required cut-off frequency fH can be adjusted and
changed later on if required.
 Second Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter:
The practical response of Second Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter
must be very close to an ideal one. In case of low pass filter, it is always
desirable that the gain rolls off very fast after the cut off frequency, in
the stop band. In case of first order filter, it rolls off at a rate of 20
dB/decade. In case of second order filter, the gain rolls off at a rate of 40
dB/decade. Thus, the slope of the frequency response after f = fH is —
40 dB/decade, for a second order low pass filter.
 The cut off frequency fH for the filter is now decided by R2, C2, R3 and C3.
The gain of the filter is as usual decided by op-amp i.e. the resistance
R1 and Rf.
Analysis of the Filter Circuit:
For deriving the expression for the cut off frequency, let us
use the Laplace transform method. The input RC network
can be represented in the Laplace domain as shown in Fig.
As mentioned earlier, a high pass filter is a circuit that
attenuates all the signals below a specified cut off
frequency denoted as fL. Thus, a high pass filter performs
the opposite function to that of low pass filter. Hence, the
First Order High Pass Butterworth Filter circuit can be
obtained by interchanging frequency determining
resistances and capacitors in low pass filter
circuit.
The first order high pass filter can be obtained by interchanging the
elements R and C in a first order low pass filter circuit. The Fig. 2.79
shows the first order high pass Butterworth filter.

It can be observed that as compared to first order low pass filter, the
positions of R and C are changed in the high pass circuit shown in Fig.
2.79.

The frequency at which the gain is 0.707 times the gain of filter in
pass band is called as low cut off frequency, and denoted as fL.

So, all the frequencies greater than fL are allowed to pass but the
maximum frequency which is allowed to pass is determined by the
closed loop bandwidth of the op—amp used.
Thus, the circuit acts as high pass filter with a passband gain as
Af. For the frequencies, f < fL, the gain increases till f = fL at a
rate of + 20 dB/decade. Hence, the slope of the frequency
response in stop band is + 20 dB/decade for first order high
pass filter. The frequency response is shown in the Fig. 2.80.

Note : As high pass filter is basically a low pass filter circuit

with positions of R and C interchanged, the design steps and
the frequency scaling method discussed earlier for low pass
filter is equally applicable to the first order high pass
Butterworth filter.
 Second Order High Pass Butterworth Filter:
The second order high pass Butterworth filter produces a gain roll
off at the rate of + 40 dB/decade in the stop band. This filter also
can be realised by interchanging the positions of resistors and
capacitors in a second order low pass Butterworth filter. The Fig.
2.81 shows the second order high pass Butterworth
filter.
Problem:

Design the narrow band pass filter with two

feedback paths with fc=1.5kHz, Q=7 and
Af=15.Calculate the new value of resistance in
the circuit which will change fc to 2kHz.
PROBLEM:
DESIGN A WIDE BAND REJECT FILTER HAVING fH=400Hz and
fL =2kHz with a pass band gain of 2.
PROBLEM: DESIGN A NOTCH FILTER TO ELIMINATE 120HZ HUM.