Structure of
chromosome, cell
cycle and cell
division
By: YASH SAXENA
Chromosomes- A structure found inside the nucleus of a cell. A chromosome is
made up of proteins and DNA organized into genes. Each cell normally contains 23
pairs of chromosomes.
Structure of Chromosomes:
• Chromosomes play a vital role in hereditary, variation and evolutionary development of
the species.
• They were discovered by the German scientist Walther Fleming in 1882.
• Each chromosome has a centromere which holds together the two sister chromatids.
• Based on the function, two kinds of chromosomes are found in the human body:
i. Autosomes (Non-sex chromosomes)
ii. Heterosomes or allosomes (Sex chromosomes) – Responsible for sex determination
Chromatin is formed of DNA and Histones.
The DNA strand winds around a core of eight histone molecules. This complex is known as
a nucleosome.
• Centromere and kinetochore: Sister chromatids are joined by the
centromere.Spindle fibres during cell division are attached at the
centromere
• The number and position of the centromere differs in different
chromosomes
• The centromere is called primary constriction
Structure of DNA
• DNA is a macromolecule composed of two complementary strands
twisted around each other.
• A nucleotide is made of phosphate, deoxyribose sugar and a
nitrogenous base.
• There are four nitrogenous bases—Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Thymine
(T) and Guanine (G). The two strands of DNA run in opposite
directions.
• These strands are held together by the hydrogen bond that is present
between the two complementary bases.
• The strands are helically twisted, where each strand forms a right-
handed coil, and ten nucleotides make up a single turn.
• The pitch of each helix is 3.4 nm. Hence, the distance between two
consecutive base pairs (i.e., hydrogen-bonded bases of the opposite
strands) is 0.34 nm.
• The DNA structure can be thought of as a twisted ladder. This
structure is described as a double-helix, as illustrated in the figure
above. It is a nucleic acid, and all nucleic acids are made up of
nucleotides.
• The DNA molecule is composed of units called nucleotides, and each
nucleotide is composed of three different components such as sugar,
phosphate groups and nitrogen bases.
Replication of DNA:
• DNA replication is the basis of
biological inheritance in all living
beings.
• The process gives rise to two
identical replicas of the original
DNA molecule.
• Replication begins at specific
locations in the genome and the
unwinding of DNA occurs with the
help of the enzyme helicase and
gyrase.
Need of cell division:
• Cell division plays an important role in all living organisms, as it is essential for
growth, repair and reproduction.
• This process helps in:
1. Renewing of damaged cells.
2. Production of new cells from older ones.
3. Maintains the total number of chromosomes.
4. Provides more cells for growth and development.
5. Repairs and controls the damage caused to the cells.
6. Also helps in the survival and growth of living organisms.
7. It is responsible for the definite shape, size and proper growth and development
of an individual.
8. In plants, mitosis helps in the formation of new parts and in repairing damaged
parts.
Defines:
• Cell division is a process by which a mature cell divides and forms
daughter cells which resemble the parent cell in several characteristics.
• Cell cycle- The process a cell goes through each time it
divides. The cell cycle consists of a series of steps during
which the chromosomes and other cell material double to
make two copies. The cell then divides into two daughter
cells, each receiving one copy of the doubled material.
• Gene- The basic unit of heredity passed from parent to
child. Genes are made up of sequences of DNA and are
arranged, one after another, at specific locations on
chromosomes in the nucleus of cells.
Phases of Cell Cycle:
• The cell cycle consists of a long non-dividing interphase and a
short dividing mitotic phase or M phase.
Interphase: In interphase, cells grow in size, volume and
prepare for the next cell division. Because interphase is a non-dividing
phase, it is also known as resting phase.
• Interphase is the most important stage of cell cycle. The
cell stays in the interphase for maximum periods.
During this phase the cell prepares itself for division.
The cell undergoes cell growth and replication during
this phase.
• During the G1 phase the cell continues to grow but does
not replicate.
• During the S phase the DNA of the cell replicates.
• During the G2 phase the RNA, proteins and other
macromolecules required for mitotic division are
produced by the cell.
Mitosis: Mitosis is the division of somatic cells in which two
identical daughter cells are produced by the division of one parent cell .
• Mitosis is also known as equational division or somatic cell division
because during the process daughter cells receive an equal number of
chromosomes and the division occurs in the body cells or somatic
cells.
• Mitosis consists of the following phases:
A. Karyokinesis: It is the division of the nucleus during cell division.
B. Cytokinesis: It is the division of the cytoplasm during cell division.
Karyokinesis:
1. Prophase
• During prophase, chromatin fibres condense and thick
chromosomes are visible.
• The nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear.
• A pair of centrioles duplicates.
• Spindle apparatus starts forming.
1.In the early prophase, the chromosomes
condense and a mitotic spindle is formed.
2.The nucleolus disappears and enables to
nucleus to start dividing.
3.During the late prophase, the chromosomes
are highly condensed and the nuclear envelope is
completely disintegrated.
4.The end of the prophase is denoted by the
formation of spindle fibers and the complete
dissolution of the nuclear membrane.
Metaphase:
1.Chromosomes are arranged on the metaphase
plate or equatorial plane.
Anaphase:
1. The centromere divides, and the sister chromatids separate from
each other.
2. Spindle fibres contract and pull chromatids towards opposite
poles.
Telophase:
1. Spindle apparatus disappears.
2. Chromosomes become thin and turn into chromatin fibres.
3. Nuclear membranes and nucleoli reappear.
Cytokinesis:
1. The furrow continues to deepen in the cell, and it finally divides
the cytoplasm forming two new daughter cells.
2. In plant cells, a cell plate appears at the equatorial plane.
Significance of mitosis:
• Mitosis is responsible for the development of the zygote
into an adult.
• Equal distribution of chromosomes to each daughter cell.
• It is responsible for the growth and development of an
individual.
• It maintains the constant number of chromosomes in all body
cells of an organism.
• It is important for the growth of organisms.
• Repair of damaged and wounded tissues occurs through mitosis.
• Old or worn out cells are replaced during normal body functioning .
Meosis:Meiosis is a type of cell division during which a single cell divides
twice and produces four daughter cells. These four daughter cells contain half the
amount of genetic material and are known as our sex cells (gametes).
• The term meiosis explains the process through which
one diploid eukaryotic cell divides to give rise to four
haploid daughter cells.
• These four haploid daughter cells are often known as
gametes.
• The male gamete is known as sperm and the female
gamete is known as egg.
• Meiosis is an important process for reproduction
amongst living organisms and occurs in all eukaryotic
organisms that sexually reproduce.
• chiasmata) is the point of contact, the physical
link, between two (non-sister) chromatids
belonging to homologous chromosomes. At a
given chiasma, an exchange of genetic material
can occur between both chromatids, what is
called a chromosomal crossover, but this is
much more frequent during meiosis than
mitosis.
• Crossing over is a cellular process that happens
during meiosis when chromosomes of the same
type are lined up. When two chromosomes —
one from the mother and one from the father —
line up, parts of the chromosome can be
switched. The two chromosomes contain the
same genes, but may have different forms of
the genes.
