BRYOPHYTES AND

PTERIDOPHYTES
TOPIC: ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF PTERIDOPHYTES

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

Dr. Pratap Srivastava Shruti Pandey
Dr. Shivam Yadav [Link] Botany
Dr. Priyanka Mishra 1st semester
 ORIGIN OF PTERIDOPHYTES
The long debated question of the origin of vascular
cryptogams is still based on mere assumptions.
Parihar (1977) has rightly grouped all existing
theories regarding the origin of pteridophytes into
following three general categories:
1. Origin of pteridophytes from algae
2. Origin of pteridophytes from bryophytes
3. Origin of pteridophytes from an intermediates
ancestral group derived from algae, that was
presumably ancestral to both bryophytes and
pteridophytes.
ORIGIN OF PTERIDOPHYTES FROM ALGAE
The theory of algal origin of pteridophytes is based mainly on the following similarities
between algae and vascular cryptogams:
1. Both contains Chlorophyll a and Chlorophyll b in their chloroplast
2. Similarities between carotenoid pigments of both groups
3. Carbohydrate reserves are similar
4. Whiplash type of flagella present in both green algae and male gamete of
pteridophytes
5. Composition of cell wall is similar in both of these groups.
A majority of botanists believe in the algal origin of pteridophytes.
There exist two categories of such botanists
POLYPHYLETIC ORIGIN (Several independent lines of origin)
MONOPHYLETIC ORIGIN(Single line of origin)
POLYPHYLETIC ORIGIN OF
PTERIDOPHYTES
The chief proponents of the polyphyletic origin of pteridophytes theory as
Church(1919) , Arber(1921) , Andrews(1947), Greguss(1955) , Leclerq(1956) , and
Mercker (1959)
Their views are summarized as follows:
CHURCH (1919): According to his hypothesis,
• This was probably a plant that grew along the ocean shores.
• The shoreline was slowly raised then it became benthic.
• A portion of the thallus was transformed into an absorptive structure. It was the hypothetical
plant thallasiophyta with little differentiation.
• It is believed that after a portion of the thallus penetrated the ground another portion became
erect and formed the main axis.
• The land plants may have evolved from this hypothetical plant by the development of an
epidermis and vascular tissues.
 ARBER (1921):
Believes that psilopsida , lycopsida, sphenopsida, and pteropsida are distinct
lines and each of them descended from thallophytic algae of a different type
ANDREWS (1947) :
Believes that vascular plants radiated in different directions during the early
Paleozoic period and each is a distinct line of evolution from algae
GREGUSS (1955):
According to him, some Psilophytes (Rhynia and Horneophyton) are
originated from some green algae (Chlorophyta)
LERLERCQ(1956);
According to her, the land plants originated in the pre Cambrian period.
She also concluded that the simple Psilophtales,such as
Rhynia,Horneophyton are not the primitive ancestral plant but Psilophytales
are therefore the “resulting point instead of a starting point”
Monophyletic origin of pteridophytes
Several researchers have advocated the monophyletic origin of pteridophytes
from algae and majority of them believe their origin to be from green algae
Fristch (1954) has been main advocate of the monophyletic origin of
pteridophytes from green algal ancestor
According to him, the pteridophyte originated from heterotrichous type of
chlorophycean member with a capacity for desiccation and resembling
chaetophorales of today e.g. Fritschiella.
Stewart and Mattox (1975) supported by several other workers, linked the
origin of land plants from Charophyceae due to many specific features
common in both . Some such common features enumerated as under:
1. Pragmoplasts
2. Photorespiration
3. Phytochrome
ORIGIN OF PTERIDOPHYTES FROM BRYOPHYTES
The characters which have a definite phylogenetic relationship between
bryophytes and pteridophytes show their striking resemblances in the following:
1. Structure of their gametophytes;
2. Ontogeny and structure of their sex organs;
3. Encapsulation of their embryos inside the archegonia;
4. Semidependent nature of their sporophytes on gametophytes;
5. Existence of the heteromorphic type of alternation of sporophytic and
gametophytic generation.
Chief proponents of the theory of origin of pteridophytes from bryophytes have
been :-
CAMPBELL (1895) was the first to put forward the theory of the origin of
vascular cryptogams from bryophytes. He suggested that pteridophytes
originated from an anscestor similar to that of Anthocerotales.
BOWER (1908) believed that the green algae first gave rise to bryophytes and
the latter evolved into pteridophytes as follows:

GREEN ALGAE RICCIA ANTHOCEROS PTERIDOPHYTES

SMITH (1955) supported Campbell theory of “anthocerotalean origin of

pteridophytes”, and emphasized on the similarties between the embedded sex
organs of anthocerotales and pteridophytes.
PROSKAUER (1960) compared the capsule of an anthocerotalean genus
(Dendroceros crispus) with the sporangia of Horneophyton and emphasised on
the origin of Rhyniaceae from Anthocerotales
Origin of pteridophytes from an intermediate
ancestral group
Many scientists who believed that both bryophytes and pteridophytes had a
common origin from a purely hypothetical group of land plants.
Such plants are very primitive archegoniate type and were named differently
by these different scientists such as
o Protopteridophyta by Tansley(1908)
o Protohepatiques by Lignier(1911)
o Anthorhyniaceae by Mehra and Handoo(1953)
o Prototracheophyta by Schuster(1966)
 EVOLUTION OF PTERIDOPHYTES
• The evolution of pteridophytes (ferns and their relatives) represents a major chapter
in the history of plant life on Earth. Pteridophytes were some of the first plants to
evolve vascular tissue, which allowed them to colonize land and become more
complex .
• Below are the key points outlining their evolutionary development:
1. Early vascular plants evolved from non-vascular ancestors in the Silurian period.
2. Pteridophytes (ferns, horsetails, and clubmosses) emerged in the Devonian period.
3. Evolution of true leaves (megaphylls), roots, and vascular tissue allowed
pteridophytes to become more complex and successful.
4. Carboniferous period saw the dominance of large pteridophytes, contributing to
coal formation.
5. Adaptations to changing environments during the Permian and Mesozoic periods
led to their continued survival and diversification in specific ecological niches.
6. Modern pteridophytes are still present in tropical and temperate regions, although
they are not as ecologically dominant as in the past.
1. Origins of Vascular Plants (Late Silurian, Early Devonian)
• Predecessors: The first land plants were non-vascular plants (e.g., bryophytes such as
mosses and liverworts), which emerged around 475 million years ago in the
Ordovician period. These early plants lacked vascular tissue, limiting their size and
ability to adapt to terrestrial environments.
• First Vascular Plants: The evolution of vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) in the
Silurian period (around 420 million years ago) marked the emergence of
Tracheophytes (vascular plants), which had better water and nutrient transport
systems, allowing them to grow taller and live in more diverse habitats.
• 2. Development of the Vascular System
• Xylem and Phloem: The evolution of xylem (water-conducting tissue) and phloem
(food-conducting tissue) allowed plants to support greater structures and survive in
drier, more varied terrestrial environments.
• First Vascular Plants: Early vascular plants, like those in the order Rhyniophytes (e.g.,
Rhynia), had simple stems and lacked leaves or roots, but they had primitive vascular
tissue, making them one of the earliest groups to occupy land .
3. Emergence of Pteridophytes (Devonian Period)
• Pteridophytes (ferns and their relatives) evolved from early vascular plants around
400 million years ago during the Devonian period.
• Key Characteristics: Pteridophytes developed more complex structures, including
roots, true leaves (megaphylls), and stems. These adaptations allowed them to thrive
in a wide range of terrestrial environments, especially in humid, swampy areas.
4. Evolution of True Leaves and Roots
• Microphylls vs. Megaphylls:
• The Lycophytes (e.g., clubmosses) developed microphylls (small leaves with a
single vein), while the ferns and other pteridophytes evolved megaphylls (larger,
complex leaves with multiple veins).
• Megaphylls are considered a major evolutionary development, as they allowed
for greater photosynthetic surface area.
• Roots: The evolution of true roots allowed pteridophytes to anchor firmly into the
soil and access water and nutrients more efficiently.
5. Dominance in the Carboniferous Period
• During the Carboniferous period (359–299 million years ago), pteridophytes reached their
peak diversity and abundance. Vast ferns, lycophytes, and horsetails dominated swampy
forests that contributed to the formation of coal deposits.
• Tree-sized ferns and giant lycophytes (e.g., Lepidodendron) grew up to 30 meters tall.
• Pteridophytes played a crucial role in shaping early terrestrial ecosystems, particularly in
carbon fixation, and the decomposition of their organic material formed extensive coal beds.
6. Adaptations to Environmental Changes (Late Carboniferous to Permian)
• As the climate changed and became drier at the end of the Carboniferous and into the
Permian period, the swampy habitats that supported large pteridophyte forests began to
shrink.
• This led to a decline in the dominance of large pteridophytes, although smaller forms of ferns
and lycophytes continued to survive in more temperate and tropical environments.
• Evolution of more drought-tolerant features (e.g., more robust vascular systems, thicker
cuticles) helped some pteridophytes adapt to these changing conditions.
7. Survival and Diversification in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras
• Mesozoic Era (252–66 million years ago): Ferns and other pteridophytes continued to
thrive, particularly in tropical and subtropical environments, where they diversified
into many new species.
• By the Cenozoic Era (66 million years ago to the present), pteridophytes became less
dominant in terrestrial ecosystems due to the rise of gymnosperms (seed plants) and
later angiosperms (flowering plants), but they persisted in various niches, especially in
humid, shaded environments such as tropical rainforests.
8. Decline and Modern Pteridophytes
• While pteridophytes no longer dominate ecosystems as they once did, they have
adapted to a wide range of habitats, including temperate, subtropical, and tropical
regions.
• Today, pteridophytes are represented by approximately 12,000 species, including
familiar plants like true ferns, horsetails, clubmosses, and whisk ferns.
• Modern pteridophytes play an important ecological role, especially in tropical forests,
where they contribute to biodiversity and help regulate the moisture cycle.
Conclusion:
• The evolution of pteridophytes marks an important step in the history of
plant life on Earth, representing the early stages of vascular plant
development. Their ability to adapt to changing climates, form diverse
structures like leaves and roots, and reproduce via spores laid the
foundation for the later evolution of seed plants. Although their
dominance has waned over time, pteridophytes continue to play a
significant ecological role today.
SPOROPHYTIC EVOLUTION OF PTERIDOPHYTES
The sporophytic evolution of pteridophytes refers to the gradual changes in the diploid, spore-
producing phase (sporophyte) of ferns and their relatives over evolutionary time. Pteridophytes
include ferns, horsetails, clubmosses, and whisk ferns. These plants exhibit distinct stages in
their life cycle, and understanding the evolution of the sporophyte involves examining how it
has adapted over time in response to environmental factors and ecological niches.
THEORIES OF SPOROPHYTIC EVOLUTION OF
PTERIDOPHYTES
1. The Telome Theory
A telome is a simple, dichotomously branching plant structure believed to be the
precursor to modern plant stems and leaves.
The Telome Theory, proposed by C.J. Chamberlain, suggests that the sporophyte of early
vascular plants evolved from simple, dichotomously branching structures called telomes.
These telomes were initially sterile and lacked leaves or roots.
Explanation of plant organization
The theory states that the entire plant body can be understood in terms of
telomes, which are the terminal portions of a dichotomizing branch system.
Explanation of megaphyll leaf evolution
• The theory states that megaphyll leaves evolved from the lateral branches of
early vascular land plants through three stages: overtopping, planation, and
webbing.
• Here are the three stages of megaphyll leaf evolution:
• Overtopping: The formation of determinate lateral branches
• Planation: The flattening of the three-dimensional terete stem segments
into a single plane
• Webbing: The fusion of planated branches with lateral outgrowths of
photosynthetic mesophyll tissue to form the leaf blade
There are two types of telomes: fertile and sterile:
Fertile telome: A telome that ends in a sporangium
• Sterile telome: A telome that ends without a sporangium and is also
known as a vegetative telome or phyllode
REFRENCES
1. O .P. Sharma – the textbook of pteridophytes.
2. "The Evolution of Plant Life: From Early Earth to Today" by Peter H. Raven,
Ray F. Evert, and Susan E. Eichhorn
3. "The Evolution of Land Plants" by William G. Chaloner