CELL

What is cell ?
• The word cell comes from the Latin word "cella", meaning
"small room", and it was first coined by a microscopist
observing the structure of cork.
• The cell is the basic, structural and functional unit of life
or all living organism and is often called the building
block of life.
• It was discovered by Robert Hooke.
Example:-Some organisms, such as most bacteria, are
unicellular (consist of a single cell). Other organisms,
such as humans, are multicellular. Humans have about
100 trillion cells;
 Cont.
• The chemical reaction of an organisms i.e. metabolism take
place in the cells.
 Types of Cells

1. Prokaryotes
2. Eukaryotes
 Prokaryotes
1. Prokaryotes (Greek: pro- before; karyon- nucleus):
Most primitive cell structure
 Lack a well defined nucleus , nuclear membrane, and membrane
bound organelles and possess relatively simple structure.
 The genetic material in them is stored in the form of nucleoid, found
freely distributed in the cytoplasm. This genetic material is made-up
of one or more folded DNA stands without presence of histone
proteins.
 Its respiratory system is closely associated with its plasmamembrane.
 Sexual reproduction does not involves both mitosis and meiosis
 These include various bacteria and cyanobacteria
 Most studied prokaryotes cell is Escherichia coli ([Link]).
 Eukaryotes
Characteristics
(Greek: eu- true; karyon- nucleus):
 possess a well defined nucleus and are more complex in
their structure and function.
 The higher organisms such as human beings are composed
of eukaryotic cells.
 Cells are larger in size, advanced, developed and complex.
 Nucleus is the site for informational components collectively
called chromatin
 Sexual reproduction involves both mitosis and meiosis
 The respiration site is the mitochondria
Eukaryotes type cell
 Difference
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

• Smaller in size 1-10µm • Larger in size 10-100µm or more

• Mainly Unicellular • Mainly multicellular
• Lipid bilayer membrane with protein
• Single membrane surround by
• Aerobic
rigid cell wall
• Nucleus well defined 4-6µm in
• Anaerobic or aerobic
diameter, contains DNA and
• Not well-defined nucleus only a surrounded by a perinuclear
nuclear zone with DNA. membrane
His tone absent Histone present
• No nuclei • Nucleolus present, rich in RNA
• Membrane bound cell organelles
• Cytoplasm contain no
are present
organeles
 Difference
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
• Ribosome present free in • Ribosome studed on outer
cytoplasm surface of endoplasmic
• Mitochondria [Link] of reticulum present
energy metabolism bound to
membrane
• Mitochondria present
• Gogli apparatus absent. Storage • Gogli apparatus present
granules with polysaccharides • Present
• Lysosome absent • Cell division by mitosis
• Cell division usually by fission, no
• Cytoskeleton Present
mitosis
• Cytoskeleton absent • RNA synthesis proceed in
• RNA and protein synthesis in nucleus and protein
same compartment synthesized in cytoplasm.
 Various Components of cell

A typical eukaryotic cell consists o

A. Cytosol
B. Cell Organelles
 Cytosol
• Cytosol is 75 to 90% water plus solid components.
• Larger organic compounds like proteins and carbohydrates,
glycogen are found as colloids particles that remain
suspended in the surrounding medium although they are not
dissolved.
• A major role of cytosol is to support synthesis of protein on
the rough endoplasmic reticulum by supplying cofactors and
energy.
• It also contain free ribosomes in the polysome form. (r-RNA)
• The cytosol contain enzymes that catalyize catabolic and
anabolic reactions,ATP is produced in glycolysis reactions.
 Cell Organelles
• Nucleus
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Goli complex
• Mitochondria
• Ribosomes
• Lysosomes
• Peroxisomes
• Centrioles and
• Spindle febres
 1. NUCLEUS
It is spherical and largest part of the
cell.
• It contains Nuclear membrane or
nuclear envelope – separate the
nucleus from cytosol
• Nuclear pore complex – control
the movement of proteins and
nucleic acid (RNA) across the
nuclear envelope.
• Nucleoplasm:- contains various
enzyme such as DNA polymerase
and RNA polymerase for m-RNA
and t-RNA synthesis
• Nucleolus and genetic material
DNA(95%)i.e. chromatin
• Nuclear membrane is continuous
with Endoplasmic Reticulum.
 Functions of nucleus
i. It controls all cellular activities.
ii. DNA replication, RNA transcription of DNA
iii. RNA helps in protein synthesis.
iv. DNA helps in production of chromosomes.
v. The nucleolus is non membranous and contains RNA
polymerase,RNAase, ATPase and other enzyme but no DNA
polymerase. Nucleolus is the site of synthesis of ribosomal
RNA (r-RNA).
vi. Nucleolus is major site where ribosome subunits are
assembled.
 [Link] RETICULUM (ER)
•It is a network of membrane continuous with nuclear
membrane, coats the nucleus, surrounds the mitochondria
and appears to connect directly to the Golgi apparatus.
These membrane and aqueous channels they enclose are
called cisternae.
• It is of two types:
a. Smooth ER do not have attached ribosome
b. Rough ER also known as ergastoplasm
 Functions of ER
• i. It provides surface area for number of chemical reactions.
• ii. Rough ER helps in the synthesises membrane lipids,
secretary proteins, etc.
• iii. Smooth ER provides a pathway for transporting various
chemical substances and lipid synthesis.
• iv. It helps to concentrate the products of synthetic activities
of cell.
3. RIBOSOMES
• These are tiny granules present
in cytoplasm as well as on surface
of endoplasmic reticulum.
• It contains special type of RNA
called r-RNA.

FUNCTION
i. Ribosomes are the main site for
protein synthesis.
LYSOSOME
• These are membranous vesicles which contains
packet of powerful digestive enzymes which are
capable of breaking down many kinds of molecules.
•The size is 0.4µ and surrounded by a lipoprotein
membrane.
•It found in all cells except erythrocytes
•pH inside the lysosome is lower than that of cytosol
•About 30 to 40 are hydrolytic in nature such as
proteolytic enzyme, nucleic acid, lipid hydrolysing
enzyme, carbohydrate splitting enzyme and other
enzymes.
•The encapsulated enzyme can act orally till the
lysosomal membrane is intact, but when the
membrane is ruptured it released into the cytoplasm
and can hydrolyse external substrates (biopolymers)
 FUNCTIONS

i. It helps for intracellular digestion.

ii. In death of a cell, lysosomal bodies disintegrates releasing
hdrolytic enzymes into the cytoplasm with the result that the
cell undergoes autolysis
iii. Phagocytosis
 GOLGI APPARATUS
•This also called Dictyosomes
•The ER is closely associated with the
golgy complexes which consists of 4-8
flattened fluid filled bag like channels
stacked upon each other.
• the golgy complexes has proximal or cis
compartment, a medial and a distal or
trans compartment.
• It is located near the nucleus.
 FUNCTIONS

i. It receive the newly synthesized proteins by ER via transfer

vesicles on the proximal side.
ii. It helps in intracellular sorting of proteins ( lipid precursors
and carbohydrate are added to ptoteins to form
glycoprotein and lipoprotein in medial part).
iii. It helps in packaging of secretory products and expelled the
contents by a process called exocytosis on the distal
 MITOCHONDRIA
• These are small intracellular
organelles and are known as Power
house of cells.
1. It is bounded by inner folded
membrane and Inner surface have
many cristae and are covered with
F1 [Link] inner membrane
is virtually impermeable to polar
and ionic substances
2. outer smooth membrane:- mostly
of phospholipids and contains a
amount of cholesterol. It also
contains many copies of the
protein called porin which permits
substances with molecular weight
< 10,000 to diffuse freely across
the outer mitochondrial
membrane
Cont.
3. Intermembrane space:- the space between the outer and
inner membranes
4. Mitochondrial matrix:- the region enclosed by inner
[Link] consists of cytric acid cycle, fatty acid
oxidation, circular DNA, ribosomes and enzyme
 FUNCTION
• It is the main site for synthesis and storage of ATP.
• It is the site for citric acid cycle, oxidation of fatty acid, urea
cycle,
• It contains special DNA and is self-replicative.
• It performs the main function of conversion and transfer of
cellular energy.
 PLASMA MEMBRANE
• It is the gatekeeper that regulates the passage of substance
into and out of the cell.
• It surrounds the cell and separate it from other cells and
external environment.
• It is a lipid bilayer of phospholipids. Within the phospholipid
bilayer cholasterol, glycolipids, protein and glycoprotein are
interseparated
• It is composed of proteins, phospholipids, carbohydrates,
minerals etc.
 Cell Membrane Architecture

• The cell membrane is not static but is dynamic in nature.

• Electron microscopic examinations of cell membranes reveal the
development of the lipid bilayer model (fluid-mosaic model) proposed
by Singer and Nicolson.
This model describe the molecular arrangement of the plasmamembrane
and other membrane in living [Link] membrane is a mosaic pf
proteins floating like iceberg in a sea of lipids.
• The model consists of phospholipid, (75%) that contain phosphorus.
These are amphipathic in nature .It has a polar part (phosphate
containing head is hydrophilic) and two nonpolar (hydrophobic) tails
regions.( fatty acid)
• These phospholipids are aligned tail to tail so the non-polar areas form a
hydrophobic region between the hydrophilic heads on the inner and
outer surfaces of the membrane.
 The cell
• membrane contains about 49% of protein, 43% lipids and 8%
carbohydrates in the form of Phospholipids and Glycoproteins.
• These biological membranes are semi-permeable in nature that is their
permeability properties ensure that the specific molecules and ions
readily enter the cell and the waste products leave the cell.
• These movements of solutes into the cell are mediated through the action
of specific transport proteins that are present on the cell membrane.
 Cont.
• The head faces outward on either side towards the watery
cytosol and extracellular fluid.
• 5% glycolipid only appear in the layer that faces extracellular
fluid.
• 20% plasmamembrane lipids are cholesterol located among
the phospholipid in animal cells
 Cont.
• Plasma membrane also contain two type ofprotein:
• Integral protein are extended across the phospholipid bilayer
among the fatty acid tails
• Pheripheral proteins are loosely attached to the inner and
outer surfaces of the membrane and are easily separated
APPENDAGES OF PLASMA MEMBRANE
• Cilia:- These are extension of the plasma membrane
containing parallel microtubles, 10µm in length helps to
move materials over the surface of the cells.
• Flagellum:- These are extension of the plasma membrane
containing parallel microtubles 55µm in length are
responsible for movement of spermatozoa in human
cells.
• Microvilli:- These are extension of the plasma membrane
containing microfillaments which helps to increase
surface area of the plasma membrane for absorption and
secretion and modified to form sensory receptors.
 FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE

i. It involves in transport of molecules in and out of the

cells. It permits the passage of certain substances and
restrict the passage of others. This property is knownas
selective permeability.
ii. It gives shape to the cell and covers and protects the cell
and organelles.
iii. It helps in intracellular adhesion and communication.
iv. It forms channels of ER.
v. It can act as a electrochemical gradient.
 MECHANISMS OF TRANSPORT THROUGH CELL
MEMBRANE
1. PASSIVE TRANSPORT OR DIFFUSION
• It is the process by which molecules move across a membrane without
energy supplied by ATP since, the energy originates from the ion gradient
itself.
• It is of two types:
 Simple Diffusion
 Facilitated Diffusion
• Involves movement from higher to lower concentration i.e. along the
concentration gradient.
 Cont.
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
 Through Channel Protein and Lipid Bilayer interstices.
• E.g.: Transport of O2, CO2, N2, Ethanol, Urea
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• Through Carrier Proteins.
• Uniport i.e. work by binding to one molecule of substrate at a
time to move it along its concentration gradient.
• E.g.: Transport of Glucose and most of the Amino acids
 Cont.
2. ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• If a molecule moves against a concentration gradient, an external
energy source is required. This movement is referred to as Active
transport.
• According to the source ofenergy, it is of two types:
 Primary Active Transport: Direct need of ATP molecule.
 Secondary Active Transport: Indirect need of ATP molecule.
• Primary Active Transport: The energy is derived directly from hydrolysis
of ATP. E.g.: Transport of Na+, K+, Ca+2, H+, Cl-.
• Secondary Active Transport: ATP provides the energy for transport
indirectly.
 Antiport or Counter Transport:
 Symport or Co-Transport: In it both the substances move across the
membrane in the same direction. E.g.: Glucose - Na+, Amino acid - Na+..
3. ENDOCYTOSIS : The process by which cells take up large
molecules is called endocytosis, a specialized function of Cell
membrane.
• There are two types of endocytosis:
 Pinocytosis: It is the cellular uptake of fluid and fluid contents.
It is a cellular drinking process. E.g.: Proteins, Polysaccharides
and Polynucleotides can enter the cells through this process.
 Phagocytosis: It involves ingestion of large particles such as
viruses, bacteria, cells, tissue debris or a dead cell. It occurs
only in specialized cells such as macrophages and some of the
WBC’s.
 Cont.
4. EXOCYTOSIS
• The process by which the cells direct the contents of secretory
vesicles out of the cell membrane is known as exocytosis.
• These vesicles contain soluble proteins to be secreted to the
extracellular environment, as well as membrane proteins and
lipids that are sent to become components of the cell membrane.
• Exocytosis are of two types:
1. Constitutive exocytosis: Secretory materials are continuously
released without requirement of any specific kind of signal.
2. Regulated exocytosis: Regulated exocytosis requires an external
signal, on the vesicles for release of components. E.g.: Secretion
of neurotransmitter, hormones and many other molecules.