Grammars
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Grammars
Grammars express languages
Example: the English language
sentence noun _ phrase predicate
noun _ phrase article noun
predicate verb
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article a
article the
noun cat
noun dog
verb runs
verb walks
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A derivation of “the dog walks”:
sentence noun _ phrase predicate
noun _ phrase verb
article noun verb
the noun verb
the dog verb
the dog walks
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A derivation of “a cat runs”:
sentence noun _ phrase predicate
noun _ phrase verb
article noun verb
a noun verb
a cat verb
a cat runs
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Language of the grammar:
L = { “a cat runs”,
“a cat walks”,
“the cat runs”,
“the cat walks”,
“a dog runs”,
“a dog walks”,
“the dog runs”,
“the dog walks” }
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Notation
Production Rules
noun cat
noun dog
Variable Terminal
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Another Example
Grammar: S aSb
S
Derivation of sentenceab :
S aSb ab
S aSb S
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Grammar: S aSb
S
Derivation of sentence aabb :
S aSb aaSbb aabb
S aSb S
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Other derivations:
S aSb aaSbb aaaSbbb aaabbb
S aSb aaSbb aaaSbbb
aaaaSbbbb aaaabbbb
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Language of the grammar
S aSb
S
n n
L {a b : n 0}
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More Notation
Grammar G V , T , S , P
V : Set of variables
T : Set of terminal symbols
S : Start variable
P : Set of Production rules
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Example
GrammarG : S aSb
S
G V , T , S , P
V {S } T {a, b}
P {S aSb, S }
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More Notation
Sentential Form:
A sentence that contains
variables and terminals
Example:
S aSb aaSbb aaaSbbb aaabbb
Sentential Forms sentence
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*
We write: S aaabbb
Instead of:
S aSb aaSbb aaaSbbb aaabbb
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*
In general we write: w1 wn
If: w1 w2 w3 wn
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*
By default: w w
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Example
Grammar Derivations
S aSb *
S
S
*
S ab
*
S aabb
*
S aaabbb
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Example
Grammar Derivations
S aSb
S aaSbb
S
aaSbb aaaaaSbbbbb
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Another Grammar Example
Grammar G : S Ab
A aAb
A
Derivations:
S ⇒ Ab ⇒ b
S ⇒ Ab ⇒ aAbb ⇒ abb
S ⇒ Ab ⇒ aAbb ⇒ aaAbbb ⇒ aabbb
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More Derivations
S Ab aAbb aaAbbb aaaAbbbb
aaaaAbbbbb aaaabbbbb
S aaaabbbbb
S aaaaaabbbbbbb
n n
S a b b
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Language of a Grammar
For a grammarG
with start variable S :
L(G ) {w : S w}
String of terminals
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Example
For grammarG : S Ab
A aAb
A
n n
L(G ) {a b b : n 0}
n n
Since: S a b b
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A Convenient Notation
A aAb
A aAb |
A
article a
article a | the
article the
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Linear Grammars
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Linear Grammars
Grammars with
at most one variable at the right side
of a production
Examples: S aSb S Ab
S A aAb
A
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A Non-Linear Grammar
Grammar G : S SS
S
S aSb
S bSa
L(G ) {w : na ( w) nb ( w)}
Number of a in string w
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Another Linear Grammar
Grammar G : S A
A aB |
B Ab
n n
L(G ) {a b : n 0}
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Right-Linear Grammars
All productions have form: A xB
or
A x
Example: S abS string of
S a terminals
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Left-Linear Grammars
All productions have form: A Bx
or
A x
Example: S Aab string of
A Aab | B terminals
B a
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Regular Grammars
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Regular Grammars
A regular grammar is any
right-linear or left-linear grammar
Examples:
G1 G2
S abS S Aab
S a A Aab | B
B a
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Observation
Regular grammars generate regular
languages
G2
Examples:
G1 S Aab
S abS A Aab | B
S a B a
L(G1 ) (ab) * a L(G2 ) aab(ab) *
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Regular Grammars
Generate
Regular Languages
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Theorem
Languages
Generated by
Regular Grammars
Regular
Languages
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Theorem - Part 1
Languages
Generated by Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars
Any regular grammar generates
a regular language
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Theorem - Part 2
Languages
Generated by Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars
Any regular language is generated
by a regular grammar
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Proof – Part 1
Languages
Generated by Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars
The language L(G ) generated by
any regular grammar G is regular
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The case of Right-Linear Grammars
Let G be a right-linear grammar
We will prove: L(G ) is regular
Proof idea: We will construct NFAM
with L( M ) L(G )
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Grammar G is right-linear
Example: S aA | B
A aa B
B b B|a
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Construct NFA M such that
every state is a grammar variable:
A
S special
VF
final state
B
S aA | B
A aa B
B b B|a 41
Add edges for each production:
a A
S VF
B
S aA
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a A
S VF
B
S aA | B
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A
a a
S a VF
B
S aA | B
A aa B
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A
a a
S a VF
B
S aA | B
b
A aa B
B bB 45
A
a a
S a VF
a
B
S aA | B
b
A aa B
B bB | a 46
A
a a
S a VF
a
B
S aA aaaB aaabB aaaba
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NFA M Grammar
A G
a
S aA | B
a
A aa B
S a
B bB | a
VF
a
B
L( M ) L(G )
b
aaab * a b * a
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In General
A right-linear grammarG
has variables: V0 ,V1,V2 ,
and productions: Vi a1a2 amV j
or
Vi a1a2 am
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We construct the NFA M such that:
each variable Vi corresponds to a
node:
V1 V3
V0
VF
V2
V4 special
final state
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For each production:Vi a1a2 amV j
we add transitions and intermediate
nodes
Vi a1 a2 ……
am V
j
…
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For each production:Vi a1a2 am
we add transitions and intermediate
nodes
Vi a1 a2 ……
am
VF
…
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Resulting NFA M looks like this:
a9
a2 a4
a1 V1 V3
a3 a5
V0
a3 a4
VF
a8 a9
V2 a5
V4
It holds that: L(G ) L( M )
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The case of Left-Linear Grammars
Let G be a left-linear grammar
We will prove: L(G ) is regular
Proof idea:
We will construct a right-linear
R
grammarG with L(G ) L(G)
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Since G is left-linear grammar
the productions look like:
A Ba1a2 ak
A a1a2 ak
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Construct right-linear grammarG
Left A Ba1a2 ak
G
linear
A → Bv
Right A ak a2 a1B
G
linear
R
A v B
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Construct right-linear grammarG
Left A a1a2 ak
G
linear
A v
Right
G A ak a2 a1
linear
R
A v
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R
It is easy to see that: L(G ) L(G)
Since G is right-linear, we have:
R
L(G) L(G) L(G )
Regular Regular Regular
Language Language Language
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Proof - Part 2
Languages
Generated by Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars
Any regular language L is generated
by some regular grammar G
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Any regular language L is generated
by some regular grammar G
Proof idea:
Let M be the NFA with L L(M ) .
Construct from M a regular G
grammar L( M ) L(G )
such that 60
Since L is regular
there is an NFA M such that L L(M )
b
Example:
M a
a
q0 q1 q2
b
L ab * ab(b * ab) * q3
L L(M )
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Convert M to a right-linear grammar
b
M a
a
q0 q1 q2
b
q0 aq1
q3
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b
M a
a
q0 q1 q2
q0 aq1 b
q1 bq1 q3
q1 aq2
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b
M a
a
q0 q1 q2
q0 aq1
q1 bq1 b
q1 aq2 q3
q2 bq3
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L(G ) L( M ) L
G b
q0 aq1 M a
a
q0 q1 q2
q1 bq1
q1 aq2 b
q2 bq3 q3
q3 q1
q3
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In General
a
For any transition: q p
Add production: q ap
variable terminal variable
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For any final state: qf
Add production: qf
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Since G is right-linear grammar
G is also a regular grammar
with L(G ) L( M ) L
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