Chapter 3

Transport
Layer
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Computer Networking: A
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Top-Down Approach
Thanks and enjoy! JFK/KWR 8th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
All material copyright 1996-2020
J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved Pearson, 2020
Transport Layer: 3-1
Transport layer: overview
Our goal:
 understand principles  learn about Internet transport
behind transport layer layer protocols:
services: • UDP: connectionless transport
• multiplexing, • TCP: connection-oriented reliable
demultiplexing transport
• reliable data transfer • TCP congestion control
• flow control
• congestion control

Transport Layer: 3-2

Transport layer: roadmap
 Transport-layer services
 Multiplexing and demultiplexing
 Connectionless transport: UDP
 Connection-oriented transport: TCP
 Principles of congestion control
 Evolution of transport-layer
functionality

Transport Layer: 3-3

Transport services and protocols
application
transport

 provide logical communication mobile

network
network
data link
physical

between application processes national or global ISP

running on different hosts

log
ica
 transport protocols actions in end

le
n d-
systems:

e nd
local or

tra
• sender: breaks application messages regional ISP

nsp
into segments, passes to network layer

ort
home network content
• receiver: reassembles segments into provider
network
messages, passes to application layer application
transport
datacenter
network
network
 two transport protocols available to data link
physical

Internet applications enterprise

network
• TCP, UDP
Transport Layer: 3-4
Transport vs. network layer services and protocols

household analogy:
12 kids in Ann’s house sending
letters to 12 kids in Bill’s house:
 hosts = houses
 processes = kids
 app messages = letters in
envelopes
 transport protocol = Ann and Bill
who demux to in-house siblings
 network-layer protocol = postal
service
Transport Layer: 3-5
Transport vs. network layer services and protocols

 network layer: logical household analogy:

communication between 12 kids in Ann’s house sending
hosts letters to 12 kids in Bill’s house:
 hosts = houses
 transport layer: logical
 processes = kids
communication between  app messages = letters in
processes envelopes
• relies on, enhances, network  transport protocol = Ann and Bill
layer services who demux to in-house siblings
 network-layer protocol = postal
service
Transport Layer: 3-6
Transport Layer Actions

Sender:
application
 is passed an application- app. msg
application
layer message
 determines segment TThtransport
app. msg
transport h

header fields values

 creates segment network
network (IP)
 passes segment to IP (IP)
link
link
physical physical

Transport Layer: 3-7

Transport Layer Actions

Receiver:
application  receives segment from IP application
 checks header values
app. msg
transport  extracts application-layer transport
message
network (IP)  demultiplexes message up network
to application via socket (IP)
link
link
physical physical
Th app. msg

Transport Layer: 3-8

Two principal Internet transport protocols
application
transport

 TCP: Transmission Control Protocol mobile

network
network
data link
physical
national or global ISP
• reliable, in-order delivery

log
• congestion control

ica
le
• flow control

n d-
e nd
• connection setup local or

tra
regional ISP
 UDP: User Datagram Protocol

nsp
ort
home network
• unreliable, unordered delivery content
provider
network
• no-frills extension of “best-effort” IP application
transport
datacenter
network
network
 services not available: data link
physical

• delay guarantees enterprise

network
• bandwidth guarantees
Transport Layer: 3-9
Chapter 3: roadmap
 Transport-layer services
 Multiplexing and demultiplexing
 Connectionless transport: UDP
 Connection-oriented transport: TCP
 Principles of congestion control
 Evolution of transport-layer
functionality

Transport Layer: 3-10

 HTTP server
client
application application
HTTP msg
transport

transport network transport

network link network
link physical link
physical physical

Transport Layer: 3-11

 HTTP server
client
application application
HTTP msg
Ht HTTP msg
transport

transport network transport

network link network
link physical link
physical physical

Transport Layer: 3-12

 HTTP server
client
application application
HTTP msg
Ht HTTP msg
transport
Hnetwork
n Ht HTTP msg
transport transport
network link network
link physical link
physical physical

Transport Layer: 3-13

 HTTP server
client
application application

transport

transport network transport

network link network
link physical link
physical physical

Hn Ht HTTP msg

Transport Layer: 3-14

 HTTP server
client1 client2
application P-client1 P-client2 application

transport

transport network transport

network link network
link physical link
physical physical

Transport Layer: 3-15

Multiplexing/demultiplexing
multiplexing at sender: demultiplexing at receiver:
handle data from multiple use header info to deliver
sockets, add transport header received segments to correct
(later used for demultiplexing) socket

application

application P1 P2 application socket

P3 transport P4
process
transport network transport
network link network
link physical link
physical physical

Transport Layer: 3-16

How demultiplexing works
 host receives IP datagrams 32 bits
• each datagram has source IP source port # dest port #
address, destination IP address
• each datagram carries one other header fields
transport-layer segment
• each segment has source,
application
destination port number data
 host uses IP addresses & port (payload)
numbers to direct segment to
appropriate socket TCP/UDP segment format

Transport Layer: 3-17

Connectionless demultiplexing
Recall: when receiving host receives
 when creating socket, must UDP segment:
specify host-local port #: • checks destination port # in
segment
DatagramSocket mySocket1
= new DatagramSocket(12534); • directs UDP segment to
socket with that port #
 when creating datagram to
send into UDP socket, must
IP/UDP datagrams with same dest.
specify port #, but different source IP
• destination IP address addresses and/or source port
• destination port # numbers will be directed to same
socket at receiving host
Transport Layer: 3-18
 Connectionless demultiplexing: an example
DatagramSocket
serverSocket = new
DatagramSocket
DatagramSocket mySocket2 = DatagramSocket mySocket1 =
new DatagramSocket (6428); new DatagramSocket (5775);
(9157); application
application P1 application
P3 P4
transport
transport transport
network
network link network
link physical link
physical physical

source port: 6428 source port: ?

dest port: 9157 dest port: ?

source port: 9157 source port: ?

dest port: 6428 dest port: ?
Transport Layer: 3-19
Connection-oriented demultiplexing

 TCP socket identified by  server may support many

4-tuple: simultaneous TCP sockets:
• source IP address • each socket identified by its
• source port number own 4-tuple
• dest IP address • each socket associated with
• dest port number a different connecting client
 demux: receiver uses all
four values (4-tuple) to
direct segment to
appropriate socket
Transport Layer: 3-20
Connection-oriented demultiplexing: example
application
application P4 P5 P6 application
P1 P2 P3
transport
transport transport
network
network link network
link physical link
physical server: physical
IP
address
B
host: IP source IP,port: B,80 host: IP
address dest IP,port: A,9157 source IP,port: C,5775 address
A dest IP,port: B,80 C
source IP,port: A,9157
dest IP, port: B,80
source IP,port: C,9157
dest IP,port: B,80
Three segments, all destined to IP address: B,
dest port: 80 are demultiplexed to different sockets
Transport Layer: 3-21
Summary
 Multiplexing, demultiplexing: based on segment, datagram
header field values
 UDP: demultiplexing using destination port number (only)
 TCP: demultiplexing using 4-tuple: source and destination IP
addresses, and port numbers
 Multiplexing/demultiplexing happen at all layers

Transport Layer: 3-22

Chapter 3: roadmap
 Transport-layer services
 Multiplexing and demultiplexing
 Connectionless transport: UDP
 Connection-oriented transport: TCP
 Principles of congestion control
 Evolution of transport-layer
functionality

Transport Layer: 3-23

UDP: User Datagram Protocol
 “no frills,” “bare bones” Why is there a UDP?
Internet transport protocol  no connection
establishment (which can
 “best effort” service, UDP add RTT delay)
segments may be:  simple: no connection state
• lost at sender, receiver
• delivered out-of-order to app  small header size
 connectionless:  no congestion control
 UDP can blast away as fast as
• no handshaking between UDP desired!
sender, receiver  can function in the face of
• each UDP segment handled congestion
independently of others
Transport Layer: 3-24
UDP: User Datagram Protocol
 UDP use:
 streaming multimedia apps (loss tolerant, rate sensitive)
 DNS
 SNMP
 HTTP/3
 if reliable transfer needed over UDP (e.g., HTTP/3):
 add needed reliability at application layer
 add congestion control at application layer

Transport Layer: 3-25

UDP: Transport Layer Actions

SNMP client SNMP server

application application

transport transport
(UDP) (UDP)

network (IP) network

(IP)
link
link
physical physical

Transport Layer: 3-26

UDP: Transport Layer Actions

SNMP client SNMP server

UDP sender actions:
application
 is passed an application- SNMP msg
application
layer message
transport  determines UDP segment UDPtransport
UDPh h SNMP msg

(UDP) header fields values (UDP)

 creates UDP segment network
network (IP)
 passes segment to IP (IP)
link
link
physical physical

Transport Layer: 3-27

UDP: Transport Layer Actions

SNMP client SNMP server

UDP receiver actions:
application  receives segment from IP application
 checks UDP checksum
transport
transport
SNMP msg header value
(UDP)  extracts application-layer (UDP)

UDP h SNMP (IP)

network msg message network
 demultiplexes message up (IP)
link to application via socket link

physical physical

Transport Layer: 3-28

UDP segment header
32 bits
source port # dest port #
length checksum

application length, in bytes of

data UDP segment,
(payload) including header

data to/from
UDP segment format application layer

Transport Layer: 3-29

UDP checksum
Goal: detect errors (i.e., flipped bits) in transmitted segment
sender: receiver:
 treat contents of UDP  compute checksum of received
segment (including UDP header segment
fields and IP addresses) as
sequence of 16-bit integers  check if computed checksum equals
 checksum: addition (one’s checksum field value:
complement sum) of segment • Not equal - error detected
content • Equal - no error detected. But maybe
 checksum value put into errors nonetheless? More later ….
UDP checksum field
Transport Layer: 3-30
Summary: UDP
 “no frills” protocol:
• segments may be lost, delivered out of order
• best effort service: “send and hope for the best”
 UDP has its plusses:
• no setup/handshaking needed (no RTT incurred)
• can function when network service is compromised
• helps with reliability (checksum)
 build additional functionality on top of UDP in application layer
(e.g., HTTP/3)
Chapter 3: roadmap
 Transport-layer services
 Multiplexing and demultiplexing
 Connectionless transport: UDP
 Connection-oriented transport: TCP
• segment structure
• reliable data transfer
• flow control
• connection management
 Principles of congestion control
 Evolution of transport-layer
functionality
Transport Layer: 3-32
TCP: overview RFCs: 793,1122, 2018, 5681, 7323

 point-to-point:  cumulative ACKs

• one sender, one receiver  pipelining:
 reliable, in-order byte • TCP congestion and flow control
steam: set window size
• no “message boundaries"  connection-oriented:
 full duplex data: • handshaking (exchange of control
• bi-directional data flow in messages) initializes sender,
same connection receiver state before data exchange
• MSS: maximum segment size  flow controlled:
• sender will not overwhelm receiver

Transport Layer: 3-33

 TCP segment structure
32 bits

source port # dest port # segment seq #: counting

ACK: seq # of next expected sequence number bytes of data into bytestream
byte; A bit: this is an ACK (not segments!)
acknowledgement number
length (of TCP header) head not
len used C EUAP R SF receive window flow control: # bytes
Internet checksum checksum Urg data pointer receiver willing to accept

options (variable
C, E: congestion notification length)
TCP options
application data sent by
RST, SYN, FIN: connection data application into
management (variable length) TCP socket

Transport Layer: 3-34

TCP sequence numbers, ACKs
outgoing segment from sender
Sequence numbers: source port # dest port #
sequence number
• byte stream “number” of acknowledgement number

first byte in segment’s data checksum

rwnd
urg pointer

window size
Acknowledgements: N

• seq # of next byte expected

from other side sender sequence number space

• cumulative ACK sent sent, not- usable not

ACKed yet ACKed but not usable
Q: how receiver handles out-of- (“in-flight”) yet sent

order segments outgoing segment from receiver

• A: TCP spec doesn’t say, - up

source port # dest port #
sequence number

to implementor acknowledgement number

A rwnd
checksum urg pointer
Transport Layer: 3-35
TCP sequence numbers, ACKs
Host A Host B

User types‘C’
Seq=42, ACK=79, data = ‘C’
host ACKs receipt of‘C’,
echoes back ‘C’
Seq=79, ACK=43, data = ‘C’
host ACKs receipt
of echoed ‘C’
Seq=43, ACK=80

simple telnet scenario

Transport Layer: 3-36
TCP round trip time, timeout
Q: how to set TCP timeout Q: how to estimate RTT?
value?  SampleRTT:measured time
 longer than RTT, but RTT varies! from segment transmission until
ACK receipt
 too short: premature timeout,
• ignore retransmissions
unnecessary retransmissions
 SampleRTT will vary, want
 too long: slow reaction to estimated RTT “smoother”
segment loss • average several recent
measurements, not just current
SampleRTT

Transport Layer: 3-37

TCP Sender (simplified)
event: data received from event: timeout
application  retransmit segment that
 create segment with seq # caused timeout
 restart timer
 seq # is byte-stream number
of first data byte in segment
event: ACK received
 start timer if not already
 if ACK acknowledges
running
• think of timer as for oldest
previously unACKed segments
unACKed segment • update what is known to be
ACKed
• expiration interval:
TimeOutInterval • start timer if there are still
unACKed segments
Transport Layer: 3-38
TCP: retransmission scenarios
Host A Host B Host A Host B

SendBase=92
Seq=92, 8 bytes of data Seq=92, 8 bytes of data
timeout

timeout
Seq=100, 20 bytes of data
ACK=100
X
ACK=100
ACK=120

Seq=92, 8 bytes of data Seq=92, 8

SendBase=100 bytes of data send cumulative
SendBase=120 ACK for 120
ACK=100
ACK=120

SendBase=120

lost ACK scenario premature timeout

Transport Layer: 3-39

TCP: retransmission scenarios
Host A Host B

Seq=92, 8 bytes of data

Seq=100, 20 bytes of data

ACK=100
X
ACK=120

Seq=120, 15 bytes of data

cumulative ACK
covers for earlier
lost ACK
Transport Layer: 3-40
TCP: retransmission scenarios
Host A Host B

Seq=100, 8 bytes of data

Seq=108, 12 bytes of data

ACK =108
X
ACK= M
timeout

Seq= Y, 15 bytes of data

Seq=135, 10 bytes of data

cumulative ACK
ACK A ACK=135
X covers for earlier
lost ACK
ACK= Z

Transport Layer: 3-41

TCP: retransmission scenarios
Host A Host B

Seq=110, 10 bytes of data

ACK=120
Seq=120, 10 bytes of data
ACK =120 ACK= M
X
ACK= M
timeout

Seq= 130, 10 bytes of

data
ACK= Y
Seq=140, 10 bytes of data
cumulative ACK
ACK A ACK=Y ACK= Z
X covers for earlier
lost ACK
ACK= Z

Transport Layer: 3-42

TCP fast retransmit
Host A Host B
TCP fast retransmit
if sender receives 3 additional
ACKs for same data (“triple Se q= 9
2, 8 by
Seq= data tes of
duplicate ACKs”), resend unACKed 100, 2
data
0 b yt e
s of
segment with smallest seq # X
 likely that unACKed segment lost,
=100
so don’t wait for timeout ACK

timeout
=100
ACK
CK =100
A
= 10 0
Receipt of three duplicate ACKs ACK

indicates 3 segments received Seq=100, 20 bytes of data

after a missing segment – lost

segment is likely. So retransmit!

Transport Layer: 3-43

Chapter 3: roadmap
 Transport-layer services
 Multiplexing and demultiplexing
 Connectionless transport: UDP
 Connection-oriented transport: TCP
• segment structure
• reliable data transfer
• flow control
• connection management
 Principles of congestion control
 Evolution of transport-layer
functionality
Transport Layer: 3-44
TCP flow control
application
Q: What happens if network Application removing
process

layer delivers data faster than data from TCP socket

buffers
application layer removes TCP socket
data from socket buffers? receiver buffers

TCP
code
Network layer
delivering IP datagram
payload into TCP
IP
socket buffers code

from sender

receiver protocol stack

Transport Layer: 3-45

TCP flow control
application
Q: What happens if network Application removing
process

layer delivers data faster than data from TCP socket

buffers
application layer removes TCP socket
data from socket buffers? receiver buffers

TCP
code
Network layer
delivering IP datagram
payload into TCP
IP
socket buffers code

from sender

receiver protocol stack

Transport Layer: 3-46

TCP flow control
application
Q: What happens if network Application removing
process

layer delivers data faster than data from TCP socket

buffers
application layer removes TCP socket
data from socket buffers? receiver buffers

TCP
code

receive window
flow control: # bytes
receiver willing to accept IP
code

from sender

receiver protocol stack

Transport Layer: 3-47

TCP flow control
application
Q: What happens if network Application removing
process

layer delivers data faster than data from TCP socket

buffers
application layer removes TCP socket
data from socket buffers? receiver buffers

TCP
flow control code

receiver controls sender, so

sender won’t overflow IP
code
receiver’s buffer by
transmitting too much, too fast
from sender

receiver protocol stack

Transport Layer: 3-48

TCP flow control
 TCP receiver “advertises” free buffer
space in rwnd field in TCP header to application process
• RcvBuffer size set via socket
options (typical default is 4096 bytes) RcvBuffer buffered data
• many operating systems autoadjust
RcvBuffer
rwnd free buffer space

 sender limits amount of unACKed

(“in-flight”) data to received rwnd TCP segment payloads

 guarantees receive buffer will not TCP receiver-side buffering

overflow

Transport Layer: 3-49

TCP flow control
flow control: # bytes receiver willing to accept

 TCP receiver “advertises” free buffer

space in rwnd field in TCP header
• RcvBuffer size set via socket
receive window
options (typical default is 4096 bytes)
• many operating systems autoadjust
RcvBuffer
 sender limits amount of unACKed
(“in-flight”) data to received rwnd
 guarantees receive buffer will not
overflow
TCP segment format

Transport Layer: 3-50

TCP connection management
before exchanging data, sender/receiver “handshake”:
 agree to establish connection (each knowing the other willing to establish connection)
 agree on connection parameters (e.g., starting seq #s)

application application

connection state: connection state:

ESTAB ESTAB
connection variables: connection Variables:
seq # client-to- seq # client-to-
server server
server-to-client server-to-client
rcvBuffer size rcvBuffer size
network
at server,client at network
server,client

Socket clientSocket = Socket connectionSocket =

newSocket("hostname","port number"); welcomeSocket.accept();
Transport Layer: 3-51
Agreeing to establish a connection
2-way handshake:

Q: will 2-way handshake always

Let’s talk work in network?
ESTAB
OK  variable delays
ESTAB
 retransmitted messages (e.g.
req_conn(x)) due to message loss
 message reordering
choose x
req_conn(x)
 can’t “see” other side
ESTAB
acc_conn(x)
ESTAB

Transport Layer: 3-52

Closing a TCP connection
 client, server each close their side of connection
• send TCP segment with FIN bit = 1
 respond to received FIN with ACK
• on receiving FIN, ACK can be combined with own FIN
 simultaneous FIN exchanges can be handled

Transport Layer: 3-53

Principles of congestion control
Congestion:
 informally: “too many sources sending too much data too fast for
network to handle”
 manifestations:
• long delays (queueing in router buffers)
• packet loss (buffer overflow at routers)
 different from flow control! congestion control:
 a top-10 problem! too many senders,
sending too fast

flow control: one sender

too fast for one receiver
Transport Layer: 3-54
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 1
original data: lin throughput: lout
Simplest scenario:
Host A
 one router, infinite buffers
 input, output link capacity: R infinite shared
output link buffers
 two flows
R R
 no retransmissions needed

Host B

R/2
Q: What happens as
lout

delay
arrival rate lin
throughput:

approaches R/2?
lin R/2 lin R/2
maximum per-connection large delays as arrival rate
throughput: R/2 lin approaches capacity
Transport Layer: 3-55
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 2
 one router, finite buffers
 sender retransmits lost, timed-out packet
• application-layer input = application-layer output: lin = lout
• transport-layer input includes retransmissions : l’in lin

Host A lin : original data

l'in: original data, plus lout
retransmitted data

R R

Host B finite shared output

link buffers
Transport Layer: 3-56
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 2
Idealization: perfect knowledge R/2
 sender sends only when router buffers available

lout
throughput:
Host A lin : original data lin
copy l'in: original data, plus lout R/2

retransmitted data

free buffer space!

R R

Host B finite shared output

link buffers
Transport Layer: 3-57
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 2
Idealization: some perfect knowledge
 packets can be lost (dropped at router) due to
full buffers
 sender knows when packet has been dropped:
only resends if packet known to be lost

Host A lin : original data

copy l'in: original data, plus
retransmitted data

no buffer space!

R R

Host B finite shared output

link buffers
Transport Layer: 3-58
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 2
Idealization: some perfect knowledge R/2
“wasted” capacity due
 packets can be lost (dropped at router) due to

lout
to retransmissions
full buffers

throughput:
when sending at
 sender knows when packet has been dropped: R/2, some packets
only resends if packet known to be lost are needed
retransmissions

Host A lin : original data lin R/2

l'in: original data, plus
retransmitted data

free buffer space!

R R

Host B finite shared output

link buffers
Transport Layer: 3-59
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 2
Realistic scenario: un-needed duplicates R/2
 packets can be lost, dropped at router due to

lout
“wasted” capacity due
full buffers – requiring retransmissions to un-needed
retransmissions
 but sender times can time out prematurely,

throughput:
sending two copies, both of which are delivered when sending at
R/2, some packets
are retransmissions,
including needed
and un-needed
Host A lin : original data lin
copy R/2 duplicates, that are
timeo
ut l'in: original data, plus delivered!
retransmitted data

free buffer space!

R R

Host B finite shared output

link buffers
Transport Layer: 3-60
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 2
Realistic scenario: un-needed duplicates R/2
 packets can be lost, dropped at router due to

lout
“wasted” capacity due
full buffers – requiring retransmissions to un-needed
retransmissions
 but sender times can time out prematurely,

throughput:
sending two copies, both of which are delivered when sending at
R/2, some packets
are retransmissions,
including needed
and un-needed
lin R/2 duplicates, that are
delivered!
“costs” of congestion:
 more work (retransmission) for given receiver throughput
 unneeded retransmissions: link carries multiple copies of a packet
• decreasing maximum achievable throughput

Transport Layer: 3-61

Causes/costs of congestion: insights
 throughput can never exceed capacity

 delay increases as capacity approached

 loss/retransmission decreases effective

throughput
 un-needed duplicates further decreases
effective throughput
 upstream transmission capacity / buffering
wasted for packets lost downstream
Transport Layer: 3-62
Approaches towards congestion control

End-end congestion control:

 no explicit feedback from
network
 congestion inferred from ACKs
data data
ACKs
observed loss, delay
 approach taken by TCP

Transport Layer: 3-63

Approaches towards congestion control

Network-assisted congestion
control: explicit congestion info
 routers provide direct feedback
to sending/receiving hosts with data data
ACKs
flows passing through congested ACKs

router
 may indicate congestion level or
explicitly set sending rate
 TCP ECN, ATM, DECbit protocols
Transport Layer: 3-64