WRU07304 CONTROL

SURVEYING

Conventional Control Surveying

Establishment of Control Points

1. Traverse Surveying

1
 Traverse Surveying

Introduction
The methods of establishing control
points in surveying are; triangulation,
Resection, intersection, Satellite
position fixing, and traversing.
The method commonly used in most
of engineering projects is that of
traversing.
A traverse is a series of connected
survey lines of known lengths and
directions.
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 Introduction

• In traversing the positions of points

are fixed by measuring horizontal
angles, at each station, subtended by
the adjacent stations and the
horizontal distance between
consecutive pairs of stations.
• The angles define the shape of the
network, whilst the lengths establish
the scale.

3
 Introduction

Use of traverse control points

In Engineering surveying traverse
points are used as control for:
• Surveying topographic detail.
• Cadastral Survey to lay out property
boundaries.
• Setting out engineering works.
• Aerial survey (Photogrammetric
survey).
• Monitoring deformations of structures
or landslide prediction 4
 Types of Traverse

There are two types of traverses

1. Open traverse.
• Is a traverse which neither start and end
at the same point nor start and end at
known points. It does not form a polygon.
• Open traverses are mainly used in
underground tunneling and mining works
where physical situation does not allow
closing the traverse.
• Open traverse has no means of
checking.
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 Types of Traverse cont’d

2. Closed traverse
Closed traverse may be polygonal traverse
or link traverse.
(a) Polygonal traverse is the one, which
close back to its starting point.
(b) A link traverse is the one, which starts
at a known point and ends to another
known point (points with known position).
The advantage of closed traverse is that
the amount of angular and linear
misclosures can be detected and
corrected. 6
Types of Traverse cont’d

7
 Traverse Surveying Fieldwork

The general duties of the traverse field

party is to :
1. Select suitable position of stations.
2. Measure and record distances
between stations.
3. Set, and move the sighting targets
from station to station.
4. Measure and record the angles.
5. Reference the stations for further
use.
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 Traverse Surveying Fieldwork

Selection of traverse stations

The positions of the stations are governed by
the following factors:
1. Easy measuring conditions.
2. Traverse lines should be long and have
approximately of equal lengths.
3. Traverse lines should pass near to the
features to be surveyed.
4. Lines of sight should not pass too close to
ground to avoid effect of refraction.
5. Adjacent traverse stations should be
intervisible to each other 9
 Traverse Surveying Fieldwork

Measurements made in traversing

• Linear measurements. Measured by;
electromagnetic distance measuring
instrument (EDM), tacheometric method
(optical means) or by direct taping with
steel tapes.
• Angular measurements. These are
obtained by using theodolites. Total
stations are used to obtain both linear
and angular measurements and make
the use of theodolite and tape measure
being obsolete in traversing. 10
 Traverse Surveying Fieldwork

Linear measurement
Conditions for making linear measurements
using Total Station
1. Linear measurements are made after
angular measurements.
2. Slope distances are reduced to horizontal
distances.
3. For geodetic surveys, distances are reduced
to Mean Sea Level (MSL) and temperature is
recorded at each end of a line.
4. Meteorological correction is applied to the
measured distance.
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 Traverse Surveying Fieldwork

Angular observations
• Angles in traverse are observed referring
from a Reference point also known as
Reference Object (R. O.)or back station.
• A reference object is a point where a first
reading is taken after setting the
instrument.
• The angles are observed in round/sets
and on both faces.
• Angles are observed before linear
measurements.
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 Sources of error

The sources of error in traversing are:

(1) Errors in the observation of
horizontal and vertical angles (angular
error).
(2) Errors in the measurement of
distance (linear error).
(3) Errors in centring of the instrument
and targets, over survey station
(centring errors). Reduced by forced
centring.
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 Assessment of Angulra Misclosre

The following are the degree of accuracy to

which angular and linear measurements
have to be made for different surveys:
Accuracy Allowable Type of survey
Misclosure
(a) 1 in 25,000 2N sec Geodetic and photo
control
(b) 1 in 10,000 10N sec Engineering and
Cadastral
(c) 1 in 5,000 30N sec Engineering and
setting out
(d) 1 in 2,000 60N sec Small site surveys
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 Assessment of Angulra Misclosre

• Acceptable angular misclosure

• The following procedure may be adopted
provided the variances of the observed
angles can be assessed, i.e.
 2
       .....  
2
a1
2
a2
2
a3
2
an

• For angles measured with equal precision;


2
   .....  
2 2 2 2 2

n and   n
a1 a2 a3 an A

• 2

2
A  A

• Where σα is the angular misclosure of the traverse, σA

= standard error.
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 Assessment of Angulra Misclosre

Example 1:
• Consider a closed traverse of nine
angles. Tests prior to the survey
showed that an observer with a
particular theodolite observes with a
standard error (σA) of 8 seconds.
What would be the acceptable
angular misclosure for the traverse?
 
 A
n
=8x3=24 seconds
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 Assessment of Angulra Misclosre

Distribution of angular errors

Before angles are corrected, the angular
misclosure must be considered to be
acceptable. If the error is not acceptable the
observations is to be re-observed. In
common terms the following notation is used:

Allowable angular misclosure=

 K N
Where N = number of traverse stations
K = value depends on the type of survey as
given in slide No.14 or standard error.
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 Assessment of Angular Misclosre

(a) Polygon traverse

• Sum of interior angles = (2n - 4 )90o OR
• Sum of exterior angles= (2n + 4 )90o
where n = number of angles.
• Angular misclosure ∂α= i - (2n±4)90o
Where i = mean observed angles,
n = number of angles.
• Misclosure is distributed equally to angles.
• Correction per angle =∂α/n with opposite
sign of angular error or misclosure.
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 Assessment of Angulra Misclosre

2. Link traverses-
The computation of angular misclosure is based
on determining bearing of the closing base line
and compare with known bearing.
• Final Forward Bearing = Initial Back Bearing +
i – (n + 1)180o OR
• Final Forward Bearing = Initial Forward Bearing
+ i – n180o Where n = number of angles.
Angular misclosure (∂α)= computed bearing
- true bearing (from coordinates).

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 Traverse Surveying Office Work

Conversion of angles to bearings

Observed angles are converted to bearings to
facilitate computations of rectangular coordinates.
Procedures:
• To the previous FB add observed angle 180o
= FB of the next line.
 Use +ve when the sum is less than 180o
 Use –ve when the sum is more than 180o
 If the sum is more than 540o, subtract 540o
OR
• To the BB of the previous line (FB±180o) add
observed angle = FB of the next line. If the
sum is more than 360o subtract 360o to get the
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 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Coordinates are description of location of points
on the earth’s surface relative to origin.
In a general classification the coordinates used
word-wide are as follows:
1. Astronomical coordinate system
2. Geodetic coordinate system
3. Cartesian coordinate system and
4. Plane Rectangular coordinate system
Under traversing, the coordinates used are
based on local /country system under the last
two headings.

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 Traverse Coordinates
Coordinates used in most of
engineering surveying are:
1. Cartesian coordinates, in which a
point is defined by the length and
bearing from a reference point
2. Rectangular coordinates, defined
by perpendicular distances from the
reference axes to a point. The axes
are Eastings (x-axis) and Nothings (y-
axis). The usual Mathematical sign
convertions are used. 22
 Computation of Coordinates
• If the length and bearing of a line AB are L and
 respectively, the Partial departures (ΔE) and
partial latitude (ΔN) are computed from
ΔE = Lsin  ….(1) ΔN = Lcos  …..(2)
• If the total coordinates of points A and B are
(NA, EA) and (NB, EB) then,
Partial latitude of AB= NB – NA = ΔNAB = Lcos 
…..(3)
Partial departure of AB = EB – EA= EAB = Lsin 
…….(4)
Equations (1) to (4) are very useful in
computations of coordinates in surveying.
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 Computation of Coordinates
• The ΔN, ΔE, Length and Bearing of traverse
line can be computed using built in formula of
scientific calculator as follows:
1. Given bearing and distance
• Enter L; press P−R; Enter bearing; press =
• Value displayed is ΔN;
• Press x-y to obtain ΔE.
2. Given ΔE and ΔN
• Enter ΔN; press R-P; Enter ΔE; press=
• Value displayed is horizontal distance
• Press x-y to obtain WCB then,
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 Computation of Coordinates

Coordinates can be computed and

converted from one system to another to
define position of a point on the earth’s
surface as shown in the figure below.

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 Mathematical sign conventions
Quadrant Sign of ΔE Sign of ΔN
I + +
II + -
III - -
IV - +
0, 360
QUADRANTS
A circle is
divided into IV I
four
270 90
quadrants
having 90 III II
degree
angular
measure. 180
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 Traverse Coordinates
Use of coordinates;
The coordinate values are used for:
• 1. Adjusting the traverse
• 2. Plotting accurately the traverse on
the constructed grid system
manually and using software
• 3. Computations of data for setting
out engineering works

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 Adjustment of Coordinates

Coordinates of points may be adjusted by:

1. Conventional method where points are
adjusted one after another. This is
because the error of forward station is
also contributed by the error of
previous /back stations
2. Least squares (Rigorous) method
where all the points are adjusted
simultaneously
The former method is commonly used in
most of engineering surveying. The later
is used in higher order control survey. 28
 Conventional Adjustment

The final stage in the traverse

computation is adjustment of the
coordinates to make the traverse
network geometrically correct.
• For polygon traverse: ΔE = ΔN =0
• For Link traverse:
E and N values relative to the
initial (opening) point, should equal the
coordinate values of the station into
which the traverse is connected the
final (closing) point. The discrepancy is
distributed to the E and N 29
 Conventional Adjustment
• Bowditch’s method. The method was
devised by Nathaniel Bowditch (1807) for
adjustment of compass traverses, it
however remain popular in use today.
The method assumes that the error in the
bearing of a line due to angular error gives
a displacement of that line, relative to that
end, equal and at right angles to that
displacement, due to error in length.
• The transit rule: In this method the error
is distributed in proportion to the partial
coordinates (E, N) instead of the length
of the traverse lines.
30
 Conventional Adjustment
• Bowditch’s method.
eE xli eN xli
CE  CN  i n
i n

 li l
i 1
i
i 1

Where eE = Total error in easting, eN = Total

error in Northing
Li = Length of a line to which a correction is to
be applied.
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 Conventional Adjustment
2. The transit rule:
eE xE eN xN
CE  CN 
 E  N
• Where E, N are change (partial) easting
and northing of the lines to which a
correction is to be applied respectively.
• The corrections are added to computed E
and N to give corrected partial
coordinates. The partial coordinates are
then added to previous coordinates to
give corrected coordinates of the traverse
points. 32
 Computation of Accuracy
Accuracy of the traverse
• The accuracy of the traverse is based
on the magnitude of the linear
misclosure and is given by:
misclosure
1. Fraction accuracy=
traversele ngth
• Ratio accuracy = 1:  L/misclosure
• Percentage = (misclosure/ L)x100
The Ratio accuracy is commonly used
in assessment of traverse accuracy.

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 Errors Detection
• Gross errors in traversing
• Mistake in traversing happens in the
process of measuring angles and
distances. Students are advises to
understand the methods used for locating
where the error occurred.
• Angular errors - compute the traverse
in forward and then backsword.
• The point which has the same coordinates
in each case, is where the mistake occur
and the angle must be re-observed.

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 Errors Detection
Linear errors
In the process of computing the
traverse in forward and backsword
the incorrect line (leg) is the one
whose bearing is similar to the
bearing of the error vector.
 If there are several lines with similar
bearings the method does not hold.
The incorrect line must be re-
measured.
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 Example on link traverse

• The following data were recorded during

traversing, the traverse network starts on a
line XA ,at point A whose coordinates are
782.820mE and 460.901mN the bearing of line
XA is 123o16’06” and ends on line EY, at E the
coordinates of E is 740.270mE and 84.901mN
the bearing of line EY is 282o03’00”:

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 Example on link traverse
Station Angle Line Length (m)

A 260o31’18’’ AB 129.352

B 123o50’42” BC 81.700

C 233o00’06” CD 101.112

D 158o22’48” DE 94.273

E 283o00’18”
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 Example on link traverse
• Compute the coordinates of stations B, C, and D
Solution:
• Compute the angular error from given coordinates,
observed angles and given bearings (-01’42”).
• Compute corrected bearings of the traverse lines
• Compute partial coordinates of the traverse
stations
• Compute errors in partial coordinates (-42.553--
42.550), (-376.247--376.222) = -0.003mE, -
0.025mN
• Compute corrections of the partial coordinates
=+0.003m, +0.025m
• Compute adjusted coordinates from partial
coordinates and corrections.
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