Chapter

Chapter Two
Two
River
River Hydraulics
Hydraulics
 River Hydraulics
 The analysis of river hydraulics in general used for

many purpose:
 To know the type & movement of water in rivers.

 For fluid shear stress & friction velocity analysis.

 For determination of velocity distribution for

rigid/Moveable boundary channels.

 To know the flow regime in rivers.
 Alluvial Channel
 The hydraulic behavior of alluvial/movable channels
is known to be in many respects different from the
behavior of rigid-boundary channels, up to this day
no theoretical set of equations applied specifically to
the flow in movable-bed channels.
 The accepted procedure is to use the kinematic and
dynamic equations as developed for rigid-boundary
channels, and to introduce empirical coefficients or
relationships supposed to suitably modify them in
order to better fit movable-bed conditions.
 Properties of Alluvial channel/Movable bed channel
 begins to continuously adapt and change its deformable boundaries.

 Its characteristic roughness is determined not only by some mean

grain size expanded into the water, but usually by bed forms as
well.
 depth of flow is generally several orders of magnitude larger than
for fixed-bed channels.
 Moving sediment elements and their continuous shifting of position
are likely to induce additional shear stresses.
 progressive movement of bed forms.

 Suspended sediment carried by the water.

 Types of flow and Water Movement in Rivers
Laminar versus turbulent
 Laminar flow occurs at relatively at low fluid velocity.
The flow is visualized as layers, which slide smoothly over
each other without macroscopic mixing of fluid particles.
 The shear stress in laminar flow is given by Newton’s law
of viscosity as

Where μ is dynamic
du viscosity,
du ρ is density of water and ν is
 v   
dz ( ν =dz10-6 m2/s at 200C).
kinematic viscosity
 Turbulent Flow
 Most flows in nature are turbulent. Turbulence is generated
by instability in the flow(high velocity).
 A typical phenomenon of turbulent flow is the fluctuation of

velocity.
U u  u  ; W w  w 
Where

U and W are instantaneous velocity, in x and z directions, respectively

u and w are time-averaged velocity, in x and z directions, respectively,

u  and w 

are instantaneous velocity fluctuation, in x and z directions,

 Cont…
 In turbulent flow the water particles move in very
irregular paths, causing an exchange of momentum from
one portion of fluid to another, and hence, the turbulent
shear stress (Reynolds stress) developed.
 The turbulent shear stress, given by time-averaging of

the Navier- Stokes equation, is

• Note that u w  is always negative.
Cont…
 Cont…
 According to the Reynolds’ procedure, the shear stress
in turbulent flow at height z in a steady uniform flow
can be described as:

in which
= viscous shear stress

= turbulence shear stress

 Cont…
u = time-averaged fluid velocity at height z

u’ = turbulent fluid velocity fluctuation in horizontal

direction

w’ = turbulent fluid velocity fluctuation in vertical direction

ρ = fluid density

ν = kinematic viscosity coefficient

 Steady versus unsteady Flow
 A flow is steady when the flow properties (e.g.

density, velocity, pressure etc.) at any point are

constant with respect to time.
 However, these properties may vary from point to

point (Unsteady).
 Uniform versus non-uniform: A flow is uniform

when the flow velocity does not change along the

flow direction.
 Boundary layer flow
 Prandtl developed the concept of the boundary layer.

 It provides an important link between ideal-fluid flow and

real-fluid flow.
 For fluids having small viscosity, the effect of internal
friction in the flow is appreciable only in a thin layer
surrounding the flow boundaries.
 The boundary layer thickness (δ) is defined as the
distance from the boundary surface to the point where u =
0.995 U.
 Cont…
The boundary layer development can be
expressed as
Cont…
 Prandtl’s Mixing Length Theory
 Prandtl introduced the mixing length concept in order to
calculate the turbulent shear stress.
 He assumed that a fluid parcel travels over a length l before its
momentum is transferred.
 Mixing Length

fluid parcel travels over a length l before its

momentum is transferred, i.e., before losing
their identity by mixing
16
 Mixing Length (cont’d)

There is no momentum transfer during movement, i.e., the

velocity of the fluid parcel is still u 1 when it just arrives at
layer 2, and decreases to u2 sometime later by momentum
exchange with other fluid in layer 2 17
 Mixing Length (cont’d)

fluid parcel, located in layer 1 and having the

velocity u1, moves to layer 2 due to eddy
motion
18
 Mixing Length (cont’d)

This action will speed up the fluid in layer 2

which can be seen as a turbulent shear stress
τt acting on layer 2 trying to accelerate layer 2
19
 Mixing Length (cont’d)

horizontal instantaneous velocity fluctuation

of the fluid parcel in layer 2 is

20
 Mixing Length (cont’d)
assuming the vertical instantaneous velocity
fluctuation having the same magnitude

where negative sign is due to the downward

movement of the fluid parcel, the turbulent
shear stress now becomes

Mixing length is related to the distance to the

wall:
21
 Velocity distribution over the depth(Z)

Turbulent sublayer
In the turbulent sublayer the total shear stress
contains only the turbulent shear stress

total shear stress increases linearly with

depth

By Prandtl’s mixing length theory

22
 Velocity distribution over the depth
assuming the mixing length

where Von Karman constant κ = 0.4, we get

Integration of the equation gives the famous

logarithmic velocity profile

23
 Velocity distribution over the depth
Viscous sublayer
In the case of hydraulically smooth flow there
is a viscous sublayer
viscous shear stress is constant in this layer
and equal to the bottom shear stress

Integrating and applying uz=0 = 0 gives

24
Velocity distribution over the depth
linear velocity distribution in the viscous sublayer

Linear velocity distribution intersect with the

logarithmic velocity distribution at the elevation
z = 11.6 ν/u* yielding a theoretical viscous

sublayer thickness

25
Viscous shear stress versus turbulent shear stress

Figure 2.3 Velocity distribution in smooth and rough flow

26
 FLUID VELOCITIES AND BED SHEAR STRESSES
• Equation of motion
 Cont…
For steady uniform (turbulent) flow

or

or
where I = sinβ = energy gradient

τ varies linearly with z

For z = 0 this yields

28
 Friction velocity
By definition

resulting

τb = bed-shear stress, N/m2

where

u* = bed-shear velocity, m/s

ρ = fluid density, kg/m3

h = flow depth, m
g = gravity acceleration, m/s2
29
Classification of flow layer
 Cont…
 Viscous sub layer: a thin layer just above the bottom.
In this layer there is almost no turbulence.
Measurement shows that the viscous shear stress in
this layer is constant. The flow is laminar. Above this
layer the flow is turbulent.
 Transition layer: also called buffer layer. Viscosity
and turbulence are equally important.
 Cont…
 Turbulent logarithmic layer: viscous shear stress can be
neglected in this layer. Based on measurement, it is
assumed that the turbulent shear stress is constant and
equal to bottom shear stress. It is in this layer where
Prandtl introduced the mixing length concept and derived
the logarithmic velocity profile.
 Turbulent outer layer: velocities are almost constant
because of the presence of large eddies which produce
strong mixing of the flow.
 (cont’d)

Turbulent shear stress τt is dominant in the

major part of the flow depth.
33
 (cont’d)

In case of a smooth bottom the viscous shear

stress τν becomes dominant close to the
bottom because the turbulent fluctuations u’
and w’ die out near the bottom and are equal
to zero at the bottom (u’ = w’ at z = 0) 34
 (cont’d)

The layer where viscous shear stress is

dominant is called the viscous sublayer (δv)
35
 (cont’d)

The most important turbulent sublayer is the

logarithmic sublayer
36
 (cont’d)

Between the viscous sublayer and the

logarithmic sublayer there is a transition
sublayer, sometimes called buffer sublayer 37
 (cont’d)

Above the viscous sublayer the flow is

turbulent
38
 (cont’d)

Above the logarithmic sublayer there is an

outer sublayer
39
 Hydraulic Regimes
The roughness elements mainly influence the
velocity distribution close to the bottom by
generating eddies (with a size of the order of
the roughness elements)
Further away, the eddies will rapidly be
absorbed in the general existing turbulence
pattern.
The type of flow regime can be related to the
ratio of the Nikurdase roughness (ks) and a
length scale of the viscous sublayer (v/u*) in
which v = kinematic viscosity coefficient
2 40
 Hydraulic Regimes (cont’d)
Based on experimental results, it was found
that:
Hydraulically smooth flow,

roughness elements are much smaller than

the thickness of the viscous sublayer and do
not affect the velocity distribution.

Hydraulically rough flow,

Bed roughness is so large that it produces

eddies close to the bottom 41
 Hydraulic Regimes (cont’d)
Hydraulically rough flow,

viscous sublayer does not exist and the flow

velocity distribution is not dependent on the
viscosity (ν) of the fluid

Hydraulically transitional flow,

The velocity distribution is affected by

viscosity as well as by the bottom roughness
42
Hydraulically smooth and rough flows
 Velocity Distribution for Rigid-Boundary Channels
• Consider only velocity-distribution concepts for turbulent
uniform flow.
• Prandtl assumed that a particle of fluid in turbulent flow
is displaced at distance l, called mixing length, before its
momentum is changed by the new environment. Hence,
turbulent velocity fluctuation in both x- and z- directions
is proportional to [Link]/dz.
• Mixing length, l, is proportional to the distance from the
boundary, z, then
l = kz
 If the shear velocity, u* is introduced, Prandtl’s
differential equation for the turbulent shear stress can be
integrated. The integration yields u*
u ln z  C
k
 Cont…
• u denotes average point velocity at a distance
z from the boundary (the averaging is related
to turbulent fluctuations in time). C is a
constant of integration, which must be
determined from the boundary conditions.
• When z = zo, u = 0, and the constant of
integration is obtained C = -(u*/k (ln z0)).
u*
u  (ln z  ln z 0 )
k
When z0 = mυ/u*, in which m is a dimensionless
u 1 z u*
constant  (ln  ln m)
u* k 
 Turbulent velocity distribution
• Finally, denoting A = l/k and B = -1/k(ln m), the
resulting logarithmic equation is
u zu *
A ln B
u* 

• Prandtl – von Karman universal velocity

distribution law.
• For hydraulically smooth boundaries,
Nikuradse’s experiments indicate A = 2.5 and
B = 5.5,K=[Link] the constants leads
to the expression
u vu zu zu
 2.5 ln *  5.5 5.75 log *  5.5 5.75 log 9 *
u* v v v
 Velocity-distribution equation for flow over rough
boundaries
• When, on the other hand, K s u* / v ~ 70,
Nikuradse’s experiments indicate that
K s u* u zu * Ksu*
'
B 8.5  2.5 ln  2.5 ln  8.5  2.5 ln
v u* v v
u z z
5.75 log  8.5 5.75 log 30
u* Ks Ks
• For the transition zone velocity-distribution
equationu
is found z
also to be of the general
form u  5.75 log
* K

s B'
 Cont…
• A more simplified approach regarding velocity
distribution for flow over rigid boundaries was later
proposed by H.A. Einstein. It is valid for all three
boundary conditions (hydraulically smooth, rough or in
transition region), and is given by
u z
5.75 log ( 30.2 x)
u* KS
• Roughness height Ks denotes here d65, i.e. grain diameter
determined so that 65% are equal to it or smaller, and x is
a correction factor, which depends on the ratio where
stands for the thickness of the laminar sub layer.
Correction factor x in the logarithmic velocity- distribution

Smooth boundary:
V  Ru * 
 5.75 log  3.67
u*  v 

•Rough boundary and transition

V  R 
 5.75 log  12. 27 x
u*  Ks 

Where R denotes the hydraulic radius.

 Thickness of the Laminar Sublayer
• Three roughness regimes can best be distinguished in
relation to a dimensionless parameter K s u* / v, also called
Reynolds number related to grain size.
Summarizing,
K su*
• Smooth boundary ~5 
v
3.6

• Rough boundary 
K u
v
 ~ 70 s *

K u
• Transition 3.6~5 v  ~70
 s *

• If the velocity-distribution curve within the thin laminar

sublayer is represented by a straight line, then it is possible to
write u

z
u o 

• The thickness of
11the
.6 sub layer is given by
u

*
 Effect on Velocity-Distribution of the
Movable Boundary in Alluvial Channels
• velocity distribution is similar to rigid
boundary channel
u 2.3  z 
 log  30.2 .x 
u* k  ks 

• Average velocity is expressed in a similar

manner,
V 2.3  d 
 log  30.2 .x 
u* k  ks 

where d denotes the depth of water.

• End