Chapter 2: Energy in the Atmosphere

Read pages: 32-60

Antarctica
Energy Balance Essentials
 As we learned in the last chapter, energy from the Sun enters our atmosphere, warms Earth’s surface, then travels back
into space as infrared longwave energy based on the Earth’s energy budget. Review chapter 1 if necessary.
Energy and Heat Potential
Energy:
 Energy: capacity to do Stored
work or move material energy by
 Kinetic energy: energy of the way of
position
motion produced by
molecular vibrations that we
measure as temperature
 Potential energy: stored Kinetic Energy:
energy that has capacity to energy transfer from
one ball to another
do work examples: gasoline,
dam, reservoir
 Heat: flow of kinetic energy
between molecules because
of a temperature difference,
flows from hot to cold
 Sensible heat: heat we can
feel
 Latent heat: energy gained
or lost when substance
changes from one state to
another, example: water
phase changes Sensible Heat: heat you can feel, moves from hot to Latent Heat: evaporation of water from ocean
cold stores latent heat that is released when condensed.
Methods of Heat Transfer:

 On Earth heat is
transferred through
atmosphere, water, and
land, and between these
materials.
 Radiation: transfer of
heat in electromagnetic
waves
 Conduction: molecule-to-
molecule transfer by
molecular collisions.
 Convection: movement
caused by differences in
temperature and density
within a fluid that
transfers heat. (usually
vertical)
 Warm rises (less dense)
 Cold sinks (more dense)
 Advection: horizontal
Shortwave and Longwave
Radiation

This was reviewed in detail in the

last chapter
 Shortwave energy is radiated by the
Sun
 Longwave energy is radiated from
the Earth
Insolation
Input and
Albedo

 Insolation:
radiant energy
from the sun
that arrives at
the top of the
atmosphere.
 Transmission:
passage of
shortwave and
longwave
energy through
either
atmosphere or
water.
Insolation Input and Albedo (continued)

 Scattering: when atmospheric particulates

and molecules of gases change the direction
of light’s movement without altering its
wavelength.
 Rayleigh scattering: A type of scattering
that gives the sky its color. Based on the
size of the molecules or particulates in the
atmosphere the radiation encounters on its
way to the surface.
 Large particulates can scatter all
wavelengths of light causing a hazy sky.
During sunrise and sunset light travels
obliquely through thicker atmosphere, the
shortwave energy is scattered leaving only
oranges and red to reach the surface.
 Refraction: When light enters the
atmosphere, it passes from an empty space
into gases. Causes insolation to change
speed and direction. Creates mirages when
light passes through air with different
temperatures, creates rainbows when light
passes through water.
Reflection and Albedo
 Reflection: portion of arriving energy bounces directly back into space
without being absorbed
 Albedo: refers to the percentage of insolation that is reflected (100% is total
reflection)
 Lighter surfaces reflect more, examples: snow, ice, desert sand.
 Darker surfaces absorb more, examples, dense forest cover, dark water
surfaces, asphalt, black rooftops
 31% of insolation is reflected over a year (average)
 Absorption: Assimilation of radiation by molecules of matter and its
conversion from one form of energy to another
 Land and water surfaces absorb about 45% of incoming insolation.
 Gases, dust, clouds, and ozone absorb about 24% of incoming insolation.

(c) High albedo surface, Antarctica ice sheet

The Greenhouse Effect,
Clouds, and Atmospheric
Warming

 Greenhouse Gases: absorb

and emit longwave energy
 The major greenhouse gases
are carbon dioxide, water
vapor, methane, nitrous
oxide, and CFCs.
 The way these behave is
similar to a greenhouse—
Greenhouse Effect.
Clouds and the Greenhouse Effect

 Different cloud types and the amount of

cloud cover affect insolation differently
 Cloud tops reflect shortwave insolation
from the sun reducing the amount of
energy reaching the surface
 Clouds absorb and reradiate longwave
radiation from the earth both upwards and
down back towards the surface heating the
troposphere.
 The difference between the amount of
insolation reflected and reradiated is the
net radiative effect
 High-altitude thin cirrus clouds reflect
~50% insolation warming the planet
 Low-altitude thick stratocumulus clouds
reflect ~90% insolation cooling the planet.
 Deep convective clouds are neutral
 From NASA: “Overall, averaging the
effects of all the clouds around the globe,
cooling predominates.”
 https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/
features/Clouds
Negative net radiative effect Positive net radiative effect

From NASA: “Overall, averaging the effects of all the

clouds around the globe, cooling predominates.”
https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/Clouds
Jet Contrails

 Contrail means: “condensation trail”

 Contrails are clouds made of ice crystals
formed from airplane exhaust.
 Act similar to high thin cirrus clouds.
 Slightly reduce insolation reaching the
surface
 Because the net radiative effect is positive,
contrails warm the troposphere by absorbing
and reradiating longwave radiation back to
the surface acting like a blanket.
 There are over 90,000 commercial flights
daily around the globe (2013)

 More info:
https://earthdata.nasa.gov/learn/sensing-our-
planet/on-the-trail-of-contrails
Aerosols and Global Temperature

 Volcanic eruptions cause short term

cooling of the planet. Some very
large eruptions cause “volcanic
winters”. Mt. Tambora (1815)
caused famines in 1816 “the year
without a summer.” Ice in the
Potomac in August!!
 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo
ejected 15-20 million tons of sulfur
dioxide, sulfate particulates, and ash
into the stratosphere which spread
around the planet increasing the
albedo & lowering the average
temperature by ~(0.5°C)
 Global dimming: decrease in
insolation because of pollution.
 Black carbon: carbon particles
produced by burning coal, forest Eruption of Mount Pinatubo 1991
fires, diesel fuel etc. increase
absorption lowering albedo.
Earth–Atmosphere Energy Balance

Distribution of Energy by Latitude

 Tropics: insolation high and day length
consistent, little seasonal variation, more
energy gained than lost
 Poles: highly reflective surfaces = high
albedo, part of the year no insolation,
low Sun angle, more energy lost than
gained
 At around 36° N and S latitude, a
balance exists between incoming and
outgoing. Fairfax is at ~38.8°N
 Imbalances in energy drive global
circulation.
 Weather systems (hurricanes), winds,
and ocean currents move heat from the
equator poleward.
Patterns of Insolation and
Temperature

 Typical daily pattern—time of

peak air temperature lags after
time of peak insolation. (local
weather and fronts can affect
this)
 Daily lag is due to the time it
takes for the surface to absorb
and emit radiation warming the
atmosphere.
 Seasonal lag occurs between the
warmest and coldest months
and the solstices.
 Seasonal lag is due to the length
of time it takes to warm or cool
the oceans. Water has a high
specific heat, it takes a large
change in radiation to change
ocean temperature, also the
ocean warms the atmosphere by
conduction and convection over
time.
Simplified Surface
Energy Balance

 Net radiation: incoming

shortwave minus outgoing
shortwave plus incoming
longwave minus outgoing
longwave
 Varies by day length,
latitude, and extent of
cloud cover, and ground
cover (affects reflectance).
 Higher concentrations of
greenhouse gases increase
net radiation
 If interested, for an in-
depth explanation see:
http://www.climate.be/text
book/pdf/Chapter_2.pdf
Simplified Surface Energy
Balance

 3 pathways of flow
 Sensible heat: transfer
between air and surface
through convection and
conduction
 Latent heat of
evaporation: H2O absorbs
large quantities of latent
heat energy as it changes
state to water vapor. Later
released when the water
vapor condenses back to
liquid. Huge amounts over
the ocean = hurricanes are
heat engines fueled by latent
heat. But also soil water and
even plants (transpiration).
 Ground heating and
cooling: flows into and out
of the surface (land or
water) by conduction.
Earth’s Energy Balance:

 Not only does the land affect

the energy balance but so
does the ocean. This is an
example of the energy budget
in the polar region.
 TOA= top of the atmosphere.
Solar radiation (in yellow)
and Infrared Radiation (in
red). Red plus sign = positive
feedback, Negative blue sign
= negative feedback. The
gray line = simplified
temperature profile.
 For more info this is from:
https://www.nature.com/articles/
s41467-018-04173-0?fbclid=Iw
AR2oLxHV_adxrRM13DQuuwj
i9YmVSOOIniCbECybhdpProf
VJ3wg_JKSb2I
SEBAL: Surface Energy
Balance Algorithm for
Land:
 Estimation method based on
energy balance and uses
satellite remote sensing
 Calculates the amount of
water lost to the atmosphere
(evapotranspiration)

 Rn is net radiation (W m−2), G

is the soil heat flux (W m−2),
and H is the sensible heat
flux (W m−2).
If interested: A study using
SEBAL:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S08957177100
05303
Temperature

 Heat: Flow of kinetic energy between

molecules
 Temperature: measure of average kinetic
energy of individual molecules. Effect of
temperature is sensible heat.
 Sensible heat transfers from warmer to
cooler objects.
 Temperature Scales: Fahrenheit (°F),
Celsius (°C), and (K) Kelvin
 Absolute 0: 0K The temperature at which
atomic and molecular motion completely
stops. Same as -459.67°F and -273°C
 Freezing point < 32°F, 273K, 0°C
 Boiling Point of fresh water at normal
pressure at sea level 373K, 100°C, 212°F
 Only the U.S. uses °F. Scientists use K, °C
and SI units.
Measuring Temperature

 Thermometers: liquid (mercury or alcohol) in

sealed glass tubes or electronic thermometers
 Thermometers for official scientific readings are
placed outdoors in small shelters with high albedos
and good ventilation, 4-6 feet above a vegetated
natural surface in the shade.
 Satellites: are also used to measure land (ocean
and land) surface temperatures (LST) remotely.
These measure the heating of the ground. Use
infrared and microwave sensors.
 Temperature readings are taken daily at >16,000
weather stations worldwide.
 Daily mean temperature: average of daily
minimum and maximum
 Monthly mean temperature: total of daily mean
temperatures for the month divided by the number
of days in the month
 Annual temperature range: the difference
between the lowest and highest monthly mean
temperatures for a given year
Principal Temperature Controls
 Latitude most important control. Annual net insolation decreases away from the subsolar point and the
tropics and the seasonal variance increases.
Principal Temperature Controls
(continued)
 Altitude and Elevation
 Altitude: airborne objects or heights
above Earth’s surface
 Elevation: height of a point on Earth’s
surface above sea level
 Temperatures decrease as you climb in
altitude or elevation according to the
normal lapse rate (6.4°C/1km)
 Snow line: Imaginary demarcation at the
elevation where temperatures are cold
enough for snow to remain all year.
Function of elevation and latitude.
 Ice fields and glaciers exist at the
equator on mountains above the
elevation of the snow line.
 Melting glaciers are affecting drinking
water supply and increasing floods in
Chile. For more info:
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f860/fde
901086ca360fc7670c73da53e11f675c6.p
df Santiago, Chile the Capital of Chile. Much of the population’s drinking water
 Cloud cover is also a control. Varies comes from the melting snow.
Land–Water Heating
Differences:
 Water bodies moderate temperature
patterns. Less extreme temperature
fluctuations along coasts.
 Land warms and cools rapidly,
more extreme temperature
fluctuations occur inland away from
large water bodies. Continental
interiors have the highest
temperature ranges.
 Evaporation: cools the surface and
warms the atmosphere by releasing
latent heat. 86% is from the oceans.
 Transparency: land is opaque so
only the top meter is heated. The
ocean is transparent, so light
penetrates up to 60 m. The
illuminated zone can be up to 300
m. Larger heat reservoir.
 Water has higher (4x) specific heat.
 Water is fluid and mixes
distributing heat, allows more
absorption of heat.
Principal Temperature Controls

 Marine climate (marine effect)—

moderating influences of the ocean along
coastlines or on islands
 Continental climate (continental effect,
continentality)—effect of location in a
continental interior less affected by the
sea. Greater daily and yearly temperature
range.
Ocean Currents and Sea Surface Temperatures

 Circulation of the ocean affects ocean temperatures and the

temperatures on surrounding landmasses.
 Warm currents occur off east coasts, cold currents off west
coasts. Water cooler off California compared to east coast.
 Iceland, coastal Scandinavia, & NW Europe have milder
temperatures than they should for their latitude.
 Warm water evaporates more easily than colder water (Gulf
Stream), water vapor condenses during uplift releasing
latent heat warming the air.
 Landmasses near warm ocean currents have higher
humidity & higher yearly precipitation rates.
 The Western Pacific Warm Pool has temperatures above
30°C, some of the warmest worldwide.
 In the Atlantic Basin: Gulf Stream, Florida Current & Loop
Current are warm currents. The average summer
temperature in the Loop Current is over 29.5°C. The Loop
Current has very warm water at depth which is a factor in
the rapid intensification of Gulf hurricanes such as
Hurricane Katrina.
 https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/ocean-currents-
and-climate/
Ocean Surface Currents
 Loop Current
 Deep warm salty water from the Caribbean flows through the Yucatán Current to the Loop Current to the Florida current to the
Gulf Stream (part of the southern end of the Gulf Stream).
 Sheds eddies periodically that drift around the Gulf warming the Gulf water.
 This deep warm water has a lot of energy available for hurricanes often contributing to rapid intensification of hurricanes in the
Gulf of Mexico such as hurricane Katrina.
The Urban Environment
 Microclimate: small area with a climate different from the region around it
 Urban Heat Island: urbanized regions produce average maximum and minimum temperatures higher than surrounding rural
locations. Up to 6°C (10°F) warmer.
 Cause: removal of vegetation & increase in heat absorbing & insulating surfaces such as asphalt, metal, bricks, & concrete.
 Pollution also increases the warming because of heat absorbing and emitting greenhouse gases.
 Less in vegetated areas such as parks because of shade by the tree canopy and moisture from transpiration. Higher humidity.
 Dust dome: airborne pollution trapped by restricted circulation.
Mitigating Urban Heat
Island Effects

 Urban forests, high albedo

rooftops, lighter
pavements, solar panels,
roof top gardens.
Earth’s Temperature Patterns
Winter Isotherms
 Isoline: lines of constant equal
value on a map
 Isotherm: line (isoline) along
which there is a constant
temperature value
 Thermal Equator: an isotherm
connecting all points of highest
mean temperature usually 27°C
(80°F)
 In winter isotherms shift toward
equator.
 In summer isotherms shift
toward the poles.
 Greatest variability over land.
 Hottest places are northern
hemisphere deserts: Sonoran
Desert (U.S.), Sahara Desert
Africa, & Lut Desert (Iran)
 Highest shade temperature
recorded: 134°F Death Valley,
CA
Summer Isotherms
Annual Temperature
Ranges

 Annual
Temperature
Range: annual
average high –
annual average low
 Largest ranges
occur at subpolar
locations within
interiors of North
America and Asia.
 Southern
hemisphere has
little seasonal
variation due to
lack of large
landmasses and the
oceans to moderate
temperatures.
Wind Chill, Heat Index, and Heat Waves
 Apparent temperature: temperature as it is perceived
by humans.
 Heat Wave: 3 days in a row when temperatures are
above 90°F (32.2°C)
 Wind Chill: combination of air temperature and wind
speed
 Heat Index: combination of air temperature and
humidity, dangerous: reduces ability to regulate body
temperature
Heat Waves and Climate Change
 Climate change may bring more frequent
heat waves.
 Temperature anomaly: difference in
temperature and the long-term average
selected as the baseline.
 Global temperature is now higher than the
last 125,000 years.
 Increase of 0.17°C (0.3°F) per decade since
1970 and increasing
 Australian heat wave of 2013 lasted for
weeks temperature topped 45°C (113°F)
 The last 15 years included the warmest
years on record
 Book says 2012 was the hottest, but since it
was written 2016 became warmest, 2015
second warmest and 2017 third warmest,
2018 4th warmest.
 NASA: 2018 was 1.42°F above 20th-
century average. 42nd consecutive year since
1977 with an above-average global
temperature. 9 of 10 warmest years have
occurred since 2005, with the last five https://www.noaa.gov/news/2018-was-4th-hottest-year-on-record-for-globe
years comprising the five hottest.
2019 Heat Wave in India

 June 2019, heatwave in northern India.

Temperatures surpassing 45°C (113°F) for most of
three weeks. June 10, Delhi: hottest day on record
for the month, reaching 48°C (118°F).
 11 of India’s 15 warmest years occurred since
2004. 2018 was the sixth-warmest year on record
since 1901. Over 100 died.
 https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/145167/h
eatwave-in-india
https://climatereanalyzer.org/wx/DailySummary/#t2anom
https://climatereanalyzer.org/clim/ecm/
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