UNIT –II

[IMAGE ENHANCEMENT ]
Mrs.S. Maheswari
AP/BME

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 Spatial Domain: Basic
intensity transformation

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 Spatial Domain: Basic intensity transformation
Spatial Domain vs. Transform Domain
• Spatial domain: Image plane itself, directly process the
intensity values of the image plane
• Transform domain: process the transform coefficients,
not directly process the intensity values of the image plane.
Spatial Domain Process

g ( x, y ) T [ f ( x, y )])
f ( x, y ) : input image
g ( x, y ) : output image
T : an operator on f defined over
a neighborhood of point ( x, y )
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Spatial Domain Process

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 Spatial Domain Process

Intensity transformation function

s T (r )

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 Point Processing
(Intensity Transformation)

s(x,y) = T{ r(x,y)}

Transformed Original
Gray Level Gray Level

Transformation
Function

>>imadjdemo
>>imadjust
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 Point Processing
• Pixel Operations :
• Point processing individual pixels

• Histogram equalization all pixels

• Connectivity neighboring pixels

Some Basic Intensity Transformation Functions:

 Image Negatives,
 Log Transformations,
 Gamma Transformations,
 Piecewise Linear Transformation,
 Bit Plane Slicing

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Image Negatives

Image negatives
s L  1  r

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Example: Image Negatives

Small
lesion

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Log Transformations
Log Transformations
s c log(1  r )

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Example: Log Transformations

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Power-Law (Gamma) Transformations


s cr

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 Applications
Gamma correction
 Display the image accurately on the screen
 Used to reproduce colors accurately.
 Before releasing/storing the image in the website they are preprocessed
using gamma correction to make them suitable for all monitors and
computer systems.
• General Purpose contrast manipulation
• Enhancing images with washed out appearance.

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Example: Gamma Transformations

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 Example: Gamma Transformations
Cathode ray tube (CRT)
devices have an
intensity-to-voltage
response that is a power
function, with
exponents varying from
approximately 1.8 to 2.5

1/2.5
s r

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Example: Gamma Transformations

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Example: Gamma Transformations

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 Piecewise-Linear Transformations

• Contrast Stretching
— Expands the range of intensity levels in an image so that it spans the full
intensity range of the recording medium or display device.

• Intensity-level Slicing
— Highlighting a specific range of intensities in an image often is of
interest.

 Bit plane slicing

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Highlight the major blood
vessels and study the
shape of the flow of the
contrast medium (to
detect blockages, etc.)

Measuring the actual flow

of the contrast medium as
a function of time in a
series of images

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Bit-plane Slicing

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Bit-plane Slicing

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Bit-plane Slicing

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Some Basic Intensity Transformation Functions

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Histogram Processing

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 Histogram Processing
1. Histogram Equalization
2. Histogram Matching
3. Local Histogram Processing
4. Using Histogram Statistics for Image Enhancement
Histogram h( rk ) nk
th
rk is the k intensity value
nk is the number of pixels in the image with intensity rk
nk
Normalized histogram p ( rk ) 
MN
nk : the number of pixels in the image of
size M N with intensity rk
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 [Link] Equalization
The intensity levels in an image may be viewed as
random variables in the interval [0, L-1].
Let pr (r ) and ps ( s) denote the probability density
function (PDF) of random variables r and s.

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 Histogram Equalization

s T (r ) 0 r L  1

a. T(r) is a strictly monotonically increasing function

in the interval 0 r L -1;
b. 0 T (r ) L -1 for 0 r L -1.

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 Histogram Equalization

s T (r ) 0 r L  1

a. T(r) is a strictly monotonically increasing function

in the interval 0 r L -1;
b. 0 T (r ) L -1 for 0 r L -1.

T (r ) is continuous and differentiable.

ps ( s)ds  pr (r )dr
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 Histogram Equalization

r
s T (r ) ( L  1)  pr ( w)dw
0

ds dT (r ) d  r 
dr

dr
( L  1)

dr  
0
pr ( w) dw

( L  1) pr (r )

pr (r )dr pr (r ) pr (r ) 1
ps ( s )    
ds  ds  ( L  1) pr (r )  L  1
 
 dr 
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 Example
Suppose that the (continuous) intensity values
in an image have the PDF

 2r
 2
, for 0 r L-1
pr (r )  ( L  1)
 0, otherwise


Find the transformation function for equalizing

the image histogram.

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 Example
r
s T (r ) ( L  1)  pr ( w)dw
0

r 2w
( L  1)  2
dw
0 ( L  1)

2
r

L 1

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 Histogram Equalization
Continuous case:
r
s T (r ) ( L  1)  pr ( w)dw
0

Discrete values:
k
sk T (rk ) ( L  1) pr (rj )
j 0
k nj L 1 k
( L  1)   nj k=0,1,..., L-1
j 0 MN MN j 0

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 Example: Histogram Equalization
Suppose that a 3-bit image (L=8) of size 64 × 64 pixels (MN = 4096) has the
intensity distribution shown in following table.
Get the histogram equalization transformation function and give the p s(sk)
for each sk.

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 Example: Histogram Equalization

0
s0 T (r0 ) 7 pr (rj ) 7 0.19 1.33 1
j 0
1
s1 T (r1 ) 7 pr (rj ) 7 (0.19  0.25) 3.08 3
j 0
s2 4.55  5 s3 5.67  6
s4 6.23  6 s5 6.65  7
s6 6.86  7 s7 7.00  7
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Example: Histogram Equalization

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 Histogram Matching
Histogram matching (histogram specification)
— generate a processed image that has a specified histogram
Let pr ( r ) and pz ( z ) denote the continous probability
density functions of the variables r and z. pz ( z ) is the
specified probability density function.
Let s be the random variable with the probability
r
s T ( r ) ( L  1)  pr ( w) dw
0

Define a random variable z with the probability

z
G ( z ) ( L  1)  pz (t ) dt s
0

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 Histogram Matching
r
s T (r ) ( L  1)  pr ( w)dw
0
z
G ( z ) ( L  1)  pz (t )dt s
0

1
z G ( s ) G 1
T (r ) 

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 Histogram Matching: Procedure

• Obtain pr(r) from the input image and then obtain the values of s
r
s ( L  1)  pr ( w)dw
0

• Use the specified PDF and obtain the transformation function G(z)
z
G ( z ) ( L  1)  pz (t )dt s
0

• Mapping from s to z

z G  1 ( s )

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 Histogram Matching: Example

Assuming continuous intensity values, suppose that an image has the

intensity PDF
 2r
 2
, for 0 r L -1
pr (r )  ( L  1)
 0, otherwise

Find the transformation function that will produce an image whose
intensity PDF is
 3z 2
 , for 0  z ( L -1)
pz ( z )  ( L  1) 3

 0, otherwise


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 Histogram Matching: Example

Find the histogram equalization transformation for the input image

2
r 2w r r
s T (r ) ( L  1)  pr ( w)dw ( L  1)  dw 
0 ( L  1) 2
0
L 1

Find the histogram equalization transformation for the specified histogram

z 3t 2 z z3
G ( z ) ( L  1)  pz (t )dt ( L  1)  dt  s
0 0 ( L  1) 3 ( L  1) 2

The transformation function

1/3
1/3  2 r
2
 2 1/3
z  ( L  1) s 
2
 ( L  1)   ( L  1)r 
 L  1 
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 Histogram Matching: Discrete Cases

• Obtain pr(rj) from the input image and then obtain the values of sk,
round the value to the integer range [0, L-1].
k
( L  1) k
sk T (rk ) ( L  1) pr (rj )   nj
j 0 MN j 0
• Use the specified PDF and obtain the transformation function G(z q),
round the value to the integer range [0, L-1].
q
G ( zq ) ( L  1) pz ( zi ) sk
i 0

• Mapping from sk to zq
zq G  1 ( sk )

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 Example: Histogram Matching
Suppose that a 3-bit image (L=8) of size 64 × 64 pixels (MN = 4096) has the
intensity distribution shown in the following table (on the left). Get the
histogram transformation function and make the output image with the
specified histogram, listed in the table on the right.

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 Example: Histogram Matching

Obtain the scaled histogram-equalized values,

s0 1, s1 3, s2 5, s3 6, s4 7,

s5 7, s6 7, s7 7.
Compute all the values of the transformation function G,
0
G ( z0 ) 7 pz ( z j ) 0.00 0
j 0

G ( z1 ) 0.00 0 G ( z2 ) 0.00  0
G ( z3 ) 1.05 1 G ( z4 ) 2.45  2
G ( z5 ) 4.55  5 G ( z6 ) 5.95  6
G ( z7 ) 7.00 7

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Example: Histogram Matching

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 Example: Histogram Matching

Obtain the scaled histogram-equalized values,

s0 1, s1 3, s2 5, s3 6, s4 7,

s5 7, s6 7, s7 7.
Compute all the values of the transformation function G,
0
G ( z0 ) 7 pz ( z j ) 0.00 0
j 0

G ( z1 ) 0.00 0 G ( z2 ) 0.00  0
G ( z3 ) 1.05  1 s0 G ( z4 ) 2.45  2 s1
G ( z5 ) 4.55  5 s2 G ( z6 ) 5.95  6 s3
G ( z7 ) 7.00 7 s4 s5 s6 s7

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 Example: Histogram Matching

s0 1, s1 3, s2 5, s3 6, s4 7,

s5 7, s6 7, s7 7.

rk
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
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7
Example: Histogram Matching
rk  zq
0 3
1 4
2 5
3 6
4 7
5 7
6 7
7 7
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Example: Histogram Matching

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Example: Histogram Matching

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Example: Histogram Matching

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 Local Histogram Processing

Define a neighborhood and move its center from pixel to pixel

At each location, the histogram of the points in the neighborhood

is computed. Either histogram equalization or histogram
specification transformation function is obtained

Map the intensity of the pixel centered in the neighborhood

Move to the next location and repeat the procedure

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Local Histogram Processing: Example

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 Using Histogram Statistics for Image
Enhancement
Average Intensity L 1 M 1 N1
1
m  ri p (ri ) 
MN
  f ( x, y )
x 0 y 0
i 0
L 1
un (r )  (ri  m) n p (ri )
i 0

Variance L 1 M 1 N1
1
 u2 (r )  (ri     f ( x, y )  m 
2 2 2
m) p (ri ) 
i 0
MN x 0 y 0

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Using Histogram Statistics for Image
Enhancement

Local average intensity

L 1
msxy  ri psxy (ri )
i 0

sxy denotes a neighborhood

Local variance
L 1
 2
s xy  (ri  msxy ) psxy (ri )
2

i 0

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 Using Histogram Statistics for Image
Enhancement: Example

 E  f ( x, y ), if msxy k0 mG and k1 G  sxy k2 G

g ( x, y ) 
 f ( x, y ), otherwise

mG : global mean;  G : global standard deviation

k0 0.4; k1 0.02; k2 0.4; E 4

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Spatial Filtering

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 Spatial Filtering
A spatial filter consists of (a) a neighborhood, and (b) a
predefined operation

Linear spatial filtering of an image of size MxN with a filter of size

mxn is given by the expression
a b
g ( x, y )    w( s, t ) f ( x  s, y  t )
s  a t  b

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 Spatial Correlation

The correlation of a filter w( x, y ) of size m n

with an image f ( x, y ), denoted as w( x, y) f ( x, y)

a b
w( x, y ) f ( x, y )    w(s, t ) f ( x  s, y  t )
s  a t  b

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 Spatial Convolution

The convolution of a filter w( x, y) of size m n

with an image f ( x, y ), denoted as w( x, y) f ( x, y)

a b
w( x, y ) f ( x, y )    w( s, t ) f ( x  s, y  t )
s  a t  b

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63
Smoothing & Sharpening
Spatial Filters

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 Fundamentals of Spatial Filtering
• Filtering term is borrowed from frequency
domain which means allowing or rejection.
• Similar smoothening applied directly on the pixel
is called spatial filtering Eg : Mask, kernels,
template or windows.
The general implementation for filtering an M N image
with a weighted averaging filter of size m n is given
a b

  w(s, t ) f ( x  s, y  t )
g ( x, y )  s  a t  b a b

  w(s, t )
s  a t  b

where m 2a  1, n 2b  1. 65

Two Smoothing Averaging Filter Masks

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Example: Gross Representation of Objects

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 Order-statistic (Nonlinear) Filters

• Based on ordering (ranking) the pixels contained in the filter

mask.
• Replacing the value of the center pixel with the value determined
by the ranking result. E.g., median filter, max filter, min filter

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 Sharpening Spatial Filters
• Purpose is to highlight transformation in intensity.

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 Sharpening Spatial Filters: Foundation

► The first-order derivative of a one-dimensional function f(x) is the

difference

f
 f ( x  1)  f ( x)
x

► The second-order derivative of f(x) as the difference

2 f
2
 f ( x  1)  f ( x  1)  2 f ( x)
x

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 Sharpening Spatial Filters: Laplace Operator

The second-order isotropic derivative operator is the Laplacian for

a function (image) f(x,y)
2 2
2  f  f
 f  2  2
x y
2 f
2
 f ( x  1, y )  f ( x  1, y )  2 f ( x, y )
x
2 f
2
 f ( x, y  1)  f ( x, y  1)  2 f ( x, y )
y
2 f  f ( x  1, y )  f ( x  1, y )  f ( x, y  1)  f ( x, y  1)
- 4 f ( x, y )

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Sharpening Spatial Filters: Laplace Operator

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 Sharpening Spatial Filters: Laplace Operator

Image sharpening in the way of using the Laplacian:

g ( x, y )  f ( x, y )  c  2 f ( x, y ) 
where,
f ( x, y ) is input image,
g ( x, y ) is sharpenend images,
c -1 if 2 f ( x, y ) corresponding to Fig. 3.37(a) or (b)
and c 1 if either of the other two filters is used.

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 Unsharp Masking and Highboost Filtering

► Unsharp masking
Sharpen images consists of subtracting an unsharp (smoothed) version
of an image from the original image
e.g., printing and publishing industry

► Steps
1. Blur the original image

2. Subtract the blurred image from the original

3. Add the mask to the original

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 Unsharp Masking and Highboost Filtering

Let f ( x, y ) denote the blurred image, unsharp masking is

g mask ( x, y )  f ( x, y )  f ( x, y )
Then add a weighted portion of the mask back to the original
g ( x, y )  f ( x, y )  k * g mask ( x, y ) k 0

when k  1, the process is referred to as highboost filtering.

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Unsharp Masking: Demo

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Unsharp Masking and Highboost Filtering: Example

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 Image Sharpening based on First-Order Derivatives

For function f ( x, y ), the gradient of f at coordinates ( x, y )

is defined as
 f 
 g x   x 
f grad( f )    
 g y   f 
 y 

The magnitude of vector f , denoted as M ( x, y )

Gradient Image M ( x, y ) mag(f )  g x 2  g y 2

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 Image Sharpening based on First-Order Derivatives

The magnitude of vector f , denoted as M ( x, y )

M ( x, y ) mag(f )  g x 2  g y 2

M ( x, y ) | g x |  | g y |

z1 z2 z3
M ( x, y ) | z8  z5 |  | z6  z5 |
z4 z5 z6
z7 z8 z9

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Image Sharpening based on First-Order Derivatives

Roberts Cross-gradient Operators

M ( x, y ) | z9  z5 |  | z8  z6 |

Sobel Operators
M ( x, y ) | ( z7  2 z8  z9 )  ( z1  2 z2  z3 ) |
z1 z2 z3  | ( z3  2 z6  z9 )  ( z1  2 z4  z7 ) |
z4 z5 z6
z7 z8 z9
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Image Sharpening based on First-Order Derivatives

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Example

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Example:

Combining
Spatial
Enhancement
Methods

Goal:

Enhance the
image by
sharpening it
and by bringing
out more of the
skeletal detail

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Example:

Combining
Spatial
Enhancement
Methods

Goal:

Enhance the
image by
sharpening it
and by bringing
out more of the
skeletal detail

86
Frequency Domain

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 Frequency Domain
•In the frequency domain, a digital image is converted from spatial domain to
frequency domain. In the frequency domain, image filtering is used for image
enhancement for a specific application. A Fast Fourier transformation is a tool of the
frequency domain used to convert the spatial domain to the frequency domain.
•Sampling Theorem :The theorem states that, if a function of time, f(t), contains no
frequencies of W hertz or higher, then it is completely determined by giving the value
of the function at a series of points spaced (2W) −1 seconds apart. The sampling rate of
2W samples per second is called the Nyquist rate.
•Aliasing can occur in signals sampled in time, for instance digital audio, or
the stroboscopic effect, and is referred to as temporal aliasing. It can also occur in
spatially sampled signals (e.g. moiré patterns in digital images), this type of aliasing
is called spatial aliasing.
•The Fourier Transform is an important image processing tool which is used to
decompose an image into its sine and cosine components. The output of the
transformation represents the image in the Fourier or frequency domain, while the
input image is the spatial domain equivalent.
•The discrete Fourier transform is actually the sampled Fourier transform, so it
contains some samples that denotes an image. In the above formula f(x,y) denotes
the image , and F(u,v) denotes the discrete Fourier transform

88
• The sampling rate determines the spatial resolution of the digitized image, while
the quantization level determines the number of grey levels in the digitized image. A
magnitude of the sampled image is expressed as a digital value in image processing.
• The Fourier Transform is an important image processing tool which is used to
decompose an image into its sine and cosine components. The output of the
transformation represents the image in the Fourier or frequency domain, while the
input image is the spatial domain equivalent.
• The sampling theorem specifies the minimum-sampling rate at which a continuous-
time signal needs to be uniformly sampled so that the original signal can be
completely recovered or reconstructed by these samples alone. This is usually
referred to as Shannon's sampling theorem in the literature.
• Aliasing occurs when a signal is sampled at a less than twice the highest
frequency present in the signal. Signals at frequencies above half the sampling rate
must be filtered out to avoid the creation of signals at frequencies not present in the
original sound.

89
NOISE REDUCTION:
•Noise characterized by sharp transitions in image intensity.
•Such transitions contribute to high frequency components of Fourier transform.
•Attenuating certain high frequency components result in blurring and reduction of image
noise.
IDEAL LOW-PASS FILTER:

90
Effects of Ideal Low Pass Filter

91
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93
Sharpening Frequency Domain Filters

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95
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