12.

1 Scope and purpose of site investigation:

A thorough and comprehensive site investigation is an essential preliminary to the design
and construction of a civil engineering project. The size and type of project will influence
the scope of an investigation, but not its necessity: even the smallest job warrants some
form of site investigation. The British Standard Code of Practice BS 5930:1991 gives a list
of the primary objectives of site investigation as follows:
(a) To assess the general suitability of the site and environs for the proposed
works including implications of previous use or contamination.
(b) To enable an adequate and economic design to be prepared, including the
design of temporary works.
(c) To plan the best method of construction; to foresee and provide against
difficulties and delays that may arise during construction due to ground
and other local conditions.
(d) To determine the changes that may arise in the ground and environmental
conditions, either naturally or as a result of the works,
(e) Where alternatives exist, to advise on the relative suitability of different sites, or
different parts of the same site.
Stages of site investigation
(a) Desk study: this is essentially the collection of a wide variety of
information relating to the site, e.g. maps, drawings; details of existing or
historic development, local authority information; geological maps, memoirs,
records; details of utilities, services, restrictions, rights-of-way, ownership of
adjacent property; aerial photographs. (A comprehensive list of information
and sources is given in BS 5930 and Dumbleton and West (1976).)
[b] Site reconnaissance: an early examination of the site by appropriate
experts is most desirable, e.g, geologist, land surveyor, soils engineer,
hydrologist, etc. Information should be collected on the overall site layout,
topography, basic geology; details of access, entry and height restrictions.
Local conditions should be examined, such as climate, stream flows,
groundwater conditions, site utilisation related to weather and time of year.
Where possible photographic records should be kept.
[c]Detailed site exploration and sampling: investigation of
detailed geology and sub-surface soil conditions using surface
surveys, trial pits, headings, boreholes, soundings, geophysical
methods, as appropriate; survey of groundwater conditions
over a significant period of time (maybe even after completion
of works); examination of existing and adjacent structures for
signs of cracking or settlement; location of underground
structures or cavities, buried pipes, services, etc.; provision of
samples for further examination and laboratory testing.
(d) Laboratory testing of samples: tests on disturbed and undisturbed
samples submitted from the site team; tests on soils (as specified) for
classification, quality, permeability, shear strength, compressibility, etc.;
tests on rock cores and samples for strength and durability; tests on
constructional materials, such as compaction tests; tests on
groundwater; chemical and petrographic analyses.
[e] In situ testing: texts carried out on the site either prior to or during
the construction process; ground tests such as shear-vane, standard
penetration, cone penetration, plate bearing, pressuremeter; structure
loading tests, such as tests on piles, proof loading; displacement
observations.
[f] Reporting results: details of geological study, including
structures, stratigraphy and mapping; results of borings, etc.,
including log, references for samples and stratigraphy
interpretations as requested; comments and
recommendations relating to the design and construction of
the proposed works; recommendations relating to further
investigating or testing, and to ongoing or post-completion
monitoring.
12.4 Methods of sampling
There are two main categories of soil samples:
Undisturbed samples: in which the structure and water content is preserved, as far as
possible, to truly represent site conditions; undisturbed samples are required for tests
of shear strength, consolidation and permeability; these are usually obtained by a
suitable coring method.
Disturbed samples: these should be collected as drilling or digs proceed, where
possible attempting to preserve the in situ water content; disturbed samples are
mainly required for soil identification and for classification and quality tests; as
samples are collected they are placed and sealed into glass or plastic containers,
or tins, or plastic bags.
12.8 Site investigation reports
A site investigation report is usually the culmination of the investigation,
explora_x0002_tion and testing programme, although intermediate reports
may sometimes be required where long-term ongoing observations are
involved. The report will be addressed to the client or whomever has
commissioned the investigation: it may be purely factual or may contain (if
requested) advice and recommendations relating to design and construction,
and sometimes suggestions relating to post_x0002_construction monitoring.
Although individual reports vary according to the particular brief received and
conditions encountered, a typical report will normally include the following:
(a) Introduction: a brief summary of the proposed works, the investigations carried out, the
location of the site and significant names and dates.
(b) Descriytion of site: a general description of the site: its topography and main surface
features; details of access; details of previous development or relevant history; details of
existing works, underground openings, drainage, etc.; a map showing site location, adjoining
land and borehole locations.
(c) Geology of the site: commencing with a description of overall geology, related to the
regional geology of the area; description of main soil and rock formations and structures;
comments on the influences of geology on design and construction.
d) Soil conditions: a detailed account of the soil conditions encountered, related to the design and
construction of the proposed works; description of all relevant layers, together with results of
laboratory and in situ tests; details of groundwater and drainage conditions.
(e) Construction nzaterials: a detailed account of the nature, quantity, avail_x0002_ability and
significant properties of materials considered for construction purposes.
(f) Comments and construction review: comments are necessary on the validity and reliability of the
information being presented; where further work is required this should be mentioned; if the brief is
also to make recommenda_x0002_tions, these should include consideration of alternative methods of
both design and construction.
(g) Appendices: it is convenient to assemble most of the collected data into a series of appendices:
borehole logs; laboratory test details and results; results of in situ tests; geophysical survey records;
references; relevant literature
Groundwater Conditions and Supply
The Water Table or Phreatic Surface
The pores within the zone of saturation are filled with water, generally referred
to as phreatic water. The upper surface of this zone is therefore known as the
phreatic surface but is more commonly termed the water table.

Aquifers, Aquicludes and Aquitards

An aquifer is the term given to a rock or soil mass that not only contains water
but from whichwater can be abstracted readily in significant quantities. The
ability of an aquifer to transmit water is governed by its permeability. Indeed,
the permeability of an aquifer usually is in excess
of 10-5 m s-1.
Capillary Movement in Soil
Capillary movement in soil refers to the movement of
moisture through the minute pores between the soil particles
that act as capillaries. It takes place as a consequence of
surface
tension, therefore moisture can rise from the water table
Groundwater Exploration
Groundwater investigation requires a thorough appreciation of the
hydrology and geology of the area concerned, and a groundwater
inventry needs to determine possible gains and losses affecting the
subsurface reservoir. Of particular interest is the information
concerningthe lithology, stratigraphical sequence and geological
structure, as well as the hydrogeologicalcharacteristics of the
subsurface materials. Also of importance are the positions of the water

table and piezometric level, and their fluctuations.