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J.G. San Miguel, Ph.D.
LEADERSHIP
Part 1: The Leadership
Equation
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Learning Points
• Part One of this course contains answers to these
questions:
– What is leadership?
– Which variables determine leadership effectiveness?
– Do you possess the 10 qualities of a leader?
– How susceptible are you to leadership influence?
– What is your level of interpersonal trust?
– In which situations are you likely to lead?
– What is your natural kind of intelligence?
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Introduction
Leadership is social influence.
It means leaving a mark. It is
initiating and guiding, and the
result is change.
The product is a new character or
direction that otherwise would
never be.
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Introduction
• Researchers have been trying to answer these
questions for years:
– What does it take to be a successful leader?
– What is the most effective leadership style?
• Early studies were based on two theories:
– Trait Theory (focuses on leader qualities)
– Behavior Theory (focuses on leader actions)
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Leadership Trait Theory
• Sir Francis Galton
– One of the earliest leadership theorists
– Wrote “Hereditary Genius” pub. 1869
– Believed leadership qualities were genetic
• This theory assumes physical and psychological
characteristics account for effective leadership
– Basic intelligence
– Clear and strong values
– High personal energy
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Leadership Trait Theory
• Edwin Gheselli identified six traits for effective
leadership:
– Need for achievement
– Intelligence
– Decisiveness
– Self-confidence
– Initiative
– Supervisory ability
Respondents 300 managers from 90 companies
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Leadership Trait Theory
•Need for achievement
• seeking responsibility
• working hard for success
•Intelligence
• Using good judgment
• Having good reasoning and thinking capacity
•Decisiveness
• Making difficult decisions without undue hesitation
•Self-confidence
• Having a positive self-image as a capable and effective
person
•Initiative
• Being a self-starter
• Getting jobs done with minimal supervision
•Supervisory ability
• Getting the job done through others
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Trait Theory Applied
• Paul Von Hindenburg
– First Chancellor of Germany, post WWI
– Used the trait theory for selecting and developing
military leaders
• Primary qualities for leadership ability
– Intelligence (bright vs dull)
– Vitality (energetic vs lazy)
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Examples of Trait Theory
• Bright, lazy—staff officer
• Energetic, dull—frontline soldier
• Bright, energetic—field commander
• Lazy, dull—left to find their own level of effectiveness
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Leadership Behavior Theory
• In the 1930s, emphasis on behaviorism moved
researchers in the direction of leadership behavior
– Kurt Lewin trained assistants in behaviors
indicative of three leadership styles:
• Autocratic: tight control of group activities,
decisions made by the leader
• Democratic: group participation, majority rule
• Laissez-faire: little activity of any type by the
leader
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Leadership Behavior Theory
• In the 1940s, research focused on leader behaviors
– Assumed that leaders take distinct actions
• Ralph Stogdill at Ohio State University
– Helped develop the Leader Behavior Description
Questionnaire (LBDQ)
– Respondents described leaders’ behavior in two
dimensions:
• Initiating structure (job-centered)
• Showing consideration (employee-centered)
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• Initiating Structure – the extent to which leaders take action to
define the relationship between themselves and their staff, as
well as the role that they expect each staff member to assume.
• Leaders who score high on initiating structures
– Establish well-defined channels of communication
– Communicates how to get the job done
• Tries out new ideas in the work group
• Encourages slow-working people in the group to work
harder
• Emphasizes meeting deadlines
• Meets with the group at regularly scheduled times
• Sees to it that people in the group are working up to
capacity
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• Showing consideration – the extent to which leaders take
action to develop trust, respect, support, and friendship with
subordinates
• Leaders who score high in this area are
– helpful, trusting, and respectful
– Have warm relationships with staff members
• Is helpful to people in the work group
• Treats all people in the group as equal
• Willing to make changes
• Backs up what people under you do
• Does little things to make it pleasant to be a member of
the group
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Leadership Behavior Theory
• Findings of a Leader Behavior Description
Questionnaire (LBDQ) study:
– The Democratic style was
more beneficial for group
performance
– The leader’s behavior impacted
the performance of followers
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Initiating Structure
• Leaders taking action to define the:
– Relationship between themselves and staff
– Role each staff member will assume
• Measures of initiating structure:
– Trying out new ideas
– Encouraging slow workers to work harder
– Meeting deadlines
– Meeting at scheduled times
– Making sure everyone works to capacity
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Showing Consideration
• Showing consideration means…
taking action to develop trust, respect, support, and
friendship with subordinates
• Measures of consideration:
– Being helpful
– Treating all people as equals
– Willing to make changes
– Standing behind subordinates
– Doing things to make group membership pleasant
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Leadership Behavior Theory
• Rensis Likert at the University of Michigan
conducted leadership studies
– Studied leaders’ behaviors related to worker
motivation and group performance
– Identified two dimensions of behavior:
• Job centered (initiating structure)
• Employee centered (showing consideration)
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Leadership Behavior Theory
• Robert Blake and Jane Mouton
– Developed a managerial
grid reflecting Ohio and
Michigan dimensions
– The ideal leader has high
concern for both production
and people
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Managerial Grid
• Major management styles and concerns:
– Impoverished: low production, low people
– Sweatshop: high production, low people
– Country Club: high people, low production
– Status Quo: medium production, medium people
– Fully Functioning: high production, high people
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Managerial Grid
• Two additional styles
– Paternalistic: high concern for production,
use of rewards for compliance and loyalty
– Opportunistic: promotes his/her own
advancement
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Behavior Theory Applied
• Margot Morrell documented Ernest Shackleton’s
endurance expedition and the lessons he learned:
– Leading by example
– Communicating a vision
– Keeping morale up
– Maintaining a positive attitude
• Successful leaders execute these points
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Leadership Contingency Theory
• Both trait and behavioral theories tried to identify
the one best leader or style for all situations
– By the late 1960s, it became apparent that there is
no such universal answer
• Leadership effectiveness depends on a combination
of the:
– Leader
– Followers
– Situational factors
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Leadership Contingency Theory
• In the past 50 years, more than 65 leadership
classification systems have been developed
– Most agree that leadership effectiveness depends
on the leader, the followers, and situation variables
• Leaders in different situations need different
interests, values, and skills
– A leader in a bank differs from one on a farm
– Experienced vs new followers have different needs
– Situational factors include the job performed, the
workplace culture, and task urgency
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Leadership Contingency Theory
• Leadership results when…
the ideas and deeds of the leader match the needs and
expectations of the follower in a particular situation
• Examples:
– Gen. George Patton
– Nelson Mandela
– Adolf Hitler
• For leadership to take place, the leader, followers, and
situation must match
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Transformational Leadership
• Charismatic leaders
– Inspire others and bring forth loyalty
• Max Weber’s definition of charisma:
– A quality that sets an individual apart from
ordinary people
– To be treated as if endowed with exceptional
powers or qualities
• Charisma is a gift or power of leadership
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Theory of Charismatic Leadership
• This theory was published by R.J. House in 1976
• Charismatic leaders exhibit a
combination of personal
characteristics and behavior:
– Dominant
– Ambitious
– Self-confident
– Sense of purpose
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Behaviors of Charismatic Leaders
• Charismatic leaders…
– Are role models
– Demonstrate ability that elicits respect
– Have ideological goals with moral overtones
– Communicate high expectations and show
confidence in meeting them
– Ignite the motives of followers
• Types of motives…
– Affiliation, power, and achievement
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Transformational Leadership
• Charismatic leaders emerge in every walk of life
– Football coach Vince Lombardi generated respect
and following of others through charisma
• He cared
• He worked hard
• He knew the right answers
• He believed
• He kept the bar high
• He knew people
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Transformational Leadership
• According to James MacGregor Burns,
“charisma” has overlapping meanings:
– Leaders’ magical qualities
– An emotional bond between the leader and the led
– Dependence on a powerful figure by the masses
– Assumption that a leader is omniscient and
virtuous
– Popular support for a leader that verges on love
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Transformational Leadership
• Transformational leaders raise aspirations and
transform individuals through:
– Optimism
– Charm
– Intelligence
– Other personal qualities
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Transformational Leadership
• Transformational leadership was first discussed by J.
V. Downton
• However, identification of these leadership types is
credited to James MacGregor Burns:
– Transformational leadership
– Transactional leadership
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Transformational Vs Transactional
• Transformational leaders
– Focus on the potential relationship between the
leader and the followers
– Engage the full person of the follower
– Tap the motives of the followers
• Transactional leaders
– Focus on exchanges between leaders and followers
– Emphasize exchanging one thing for another
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Transformational Vs Transactional
